KA Vet Tech cheat sheet

Normal adult dog: temperature 38.0-39.2 °C (100.5-102.5 °F), heart rate 60-160 bpm, respiratory rate 10-30 breaths/min; cats run higher (38.1-39.2 °C, 140-220 bpm, 20-30 breaths/min).

Daily fluid requirement ≈ 50-60 mL/kg/day for dogs and cats; maintenance infusion for a fasted patient is commonly 2-3 mL/kg/hr, adjusted for losses and perfusion.

Body condition score uses a 1-9 or 1-5 scale; a score of 4-5/9 (or 3/5) is ideal, and each point above ideal approximates 10-15% over ideal body weight.

Capillary refill time normally ≤2 seconds; prolonged CRT with pale mucous membranes suggests poor perfusion, while injected membranes suggest vasodilation or sepsis.

Pain scoring in dogs and cats uses validated tools (e.g., Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale, Colorado State acute pain scale); physiologic parameters alone underestimate pain.

Urine output target in hospitalized patients is 1-2 mL/kg/hr; oliguria is <0.5-1 mL/kg/hr and warrants fluid reassessment before diuretics.

Nutritional resting energy requirement (RER) = 70 × (body weight in kg)^0.75 kcal/day; illness factor multipliers are applied to RER to estimate daily needs.

Recumbent patients require turning every 4-6 hours, plus eye lubrication and bladder management, because pressure sores and corneal ulceration develop quickly.

Premedication classes: phenothiazines (acepromazine) cause vasodilation and hypotension; alpha-2 agonists (dexmedetomidine) cause bradycardia and hypertension followed by hypotension; benzodiazepines provide muscle relaxation and are reversible with flumazenil.

Induction agents: propofol (2-6 mg/kg IV titrated), alfaxalone (1-3 mg/kg IV), ketamine (5-10 mg/kg IM or 2-5 mg/kg IV); etomidate is preferred in critically ill or cardiovascularly unstable patients.

MAC concept: minimum alveolar concentration is the end-tidal concentration at which 50% of patients do not respond to a supramaximal stimulus; isoflurane MAC in dogs is about 1.3%, sevoflurane about 2.3%.

Anesthetic depth monitoring: jaw tone, palpebral reflex, eye position (eyes rotate ventrally as depth increases), and respiratory pattern; loss of palpebral reflex alone does not indicate a surgical plane.

Reversal agents: atipamezole reverses alpha-2 agonists (dose ≈ equal volume to dexmedetomidine), naloxone reverses opioids, flumazenil reverses benzodiazepines.

Multimodal analgesia combines NSAIDs (meloxicam 0.1-0.2 mg/kg), opioids (buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg), local anesthetics (bupivacaine 1-2 mg/kg), and adjuncts such as gabapentin or ketamine CRI.

Hypothermia during anesthesia worsens recovery and coagulopathy; active warming (forced-air, circulating water blankets) plus warmed fluids is standard when temperature falls below 37 °C.

A leak test and pressure check of the anesthesia machine, plus verification of oxygen supply and scavenging, precede every anesthetic event; soda lime exhaustion presents as rising end-tidal CO2.

Surgical hand scrub: chlorhexidine gluconate or povidone-iodine scrub for 3-5 minutes covering hands and forearms, followed by alcohol-based or sterile-gown-and-glove technique; scrub brushes are not used on skin.

Patient skin prep: clip hair, remove loose hair, then alternate scrub and rinse with chlorhexidine or iodine solution three times, moving from incision site outward in concentric circles.

Sterile field rules: sterile personnel stay within the sterile field, non-sterile personnel maintain at least 12 inches distance, and any item touching a non-sterile surface is contaminated.

Instrument packs are sterilized by steam autoclave at 121 °C (15 psi) for 15-20 minutes or 132 °C for 3-4 minutes; biological indicators (Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores) verify efficacy.

Gown and glove order: open sterile gown, then gloves; closed gloving is used for the first pair, and the cuffs of the gown are considered sterile only when the gown is fully sterile.

Suture selection: absorbable monofilament (poliglecaprone, polydioxanone) for subcutaneous and fascial closure; nonabsorbable (nylon, polypropylene) for skin; chromic gut for mucosal surfaces.

Surgical counts: sponges, needles, and instruments are counted before and after the procedure and recorded; a discrepancy requires radiography and documentation before closure.

Postoperative wound assessment: serous discharge and mild swelling are expected in the first 24-72 hours; purulent discharge, dehiscence, or fever warrants culture and debridement.

NSAID contraindications: avoid in dehydration, renal disease, GI ulceration, coagulopathy, and concurrent corticosteroid use; meloxicam is approved for dogs and cats (single dose in cats).

Acetaminophen is toxic to cats (methemoglobinemia, Heinz body anemia) and should never be dispensed to them; ibuprofen and naproxen are also unsafe in dogs and cats.

Antibiotic stewardship: culture and susceptibility testing before starting empiric therapy; penicillins and cephalosporins are time-dependent, aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones concentration-dependent.

Drug calculations: dose (mg/kg) × body weight (kg) = total mg; volume (mL) = total mg ÷ concentration (mg/mL); always verify with a second calculation for chemotherapy and narrow-therapeutic drugs.

Controlled substances require DEA registration, secure storage, and inventory logs; ketamine, morphine, and midazolam are common examples in veterinary practice.

Common toxicities: permethrin spot-on products cause tremors in cats; macadamia nuts and grapes/raisins cause GI and renal signs in dogs; xylitol causes hypoglycemia and hepatic failure in dogs.

Praziquantel treats tapeworms (Dipylidium, Taenia); pyrantel treats roundworms and hookworms; fenbendazole covers giardia and some lungworms; ivermectin is avoided in MDR1-affected collies.

Corticosteroid tapering: abrupt withdrawal after long-term use risks adrenal insufficiency; anti-inflammatory doses are typically tapered over days to weeks based on clinical response.

PCV/TP: microhematocrit centrifugation yields PCV; plasma total protein is measured by refractometry after plasma separation. Normal PCV dog 37-55%, cat 30-45%; TP 5.5-7.5 g/dL.

CBC interpretation: anemia is regenerative when reticulocytes are increased; leukocytosis with left shift suggests inflammation or infection; stress leukogram shows mature neutrophilia, lymphopenia, and eosinopenia.

Serum biochemistry: BUN and creatinine reflect renal function; ALT and ALP reflect hepatobiliary injury; glucose, electrolytes, and albumin guide fluid and nutritional planning.

Urinalysis: assess specific gravity (dog 1.015-1.045, cat 1.035-1.060), pH, protein, glucose, ketones, bilirubin, and sediment; cystocentesis samples are preferred for culture.

Blood culture and cytology samples are collected aseptically; EDTA tubes for CBC, serum separator or heparin tubes for chemistry, and sodium citrate for coagulation testing.

Fecal flotation detects nematode eggs and coccidia; Giardia antigen ELISA is more sensitive than microscopy; heartworm antigen testing plus microfilaria testing is recommended.

Blood glucose meter readings may differ from laboratory values; confirm hypoglycemia with a laboratory sample and treat symptomatic patients immediately.

Cytology: fine-needle aspirate with a 22-25 gauge needle, smear thinly, air-dry, and stain with Diff-Quik; neoplastic cells often show anisokaryosis and prominent nucleoli.

Radiographic density: air (black) < fat < soft tissue/fluid < bone < metal (white); thoracic films require inspiration and are taken at end-inspiration.

Thoracic radiography: right lateral and left lateral plus VD or DV views; cats often require DV because lateral recumbency compresses the dependent lung.

Abdominal radiography: right lateral and VD views; loss of serosal detail suggests effusion, peritonitis, or emaciation; gas patterns localize obstruction.

Ultrasound: high-frequency transducers (7-15 MHz) for superficial structures, low-frequency (2-5 MHz) for deep abdomen; acoustic shadowing indicates mineralization or gas.

Radiation safety: ALARA principle; personal dosimeters, lead aprons, thyroid shields, and distance and shielding reduce exposure; never hold a patient in the primary beam.

Contrast studies: barium sulfate for GI studies (avoid if perforation suspected), iodinated contrast for excretory urography; monitor for aspiration and adverse reactions.

Dental radiography: full-mouth series uses parallel technique for mandibular premolars/molars and bisecting angle for maxillary teeth; evaluate for root resorption and bone loss.

CT and MRI: CT is superior for bone and pulmonary detail; MRI is preferred for brain and spinal cord; both require general anesthesia and metal screening.

Dental formula: permanent dog 2×(I3/3, C1/1, P4/4, M2/3) = 42 teeth; cat 2×(I3/3, C1/1, P3/2, M1/1) = 30 teeth; deciduous dog 28, cat 26.

Periodontal disease staging uses probing depth, attachment loss, and radiographs; normal sulcus depth ≤1-2 mm in cats and ≤1-3 mm in dogs.

Grade 1 gingivitis is reversible with plaque control; grade 3-4 periodontitis requires scaling, root planing, and possibly extraction with radiographs.

Dental scaling requires general anesthesia with a cuffed endotracheal tube and pharyngeal packing to prevent aspiration; hand scaling alone leaves subgingival calculus.

Tooth extraction: use elevators and luxation, then section multi-rooted teeth; close extraction sites with absorbable suture and confirm no root fragments radiographically.

Feline odontoclastic resorptive lesions (FORL) appear as pinkish defects at the gingival margin and require extraction or crown amputation, not restoration.

Home dental care: daily brushing with pet-safe enzymatic toothpaste is most effective; chlorhexidine rinses and dental diets are adjuncts, not substitutes.

Dental nerve blocks (infraorbital, mandibular, maxillary) reduce anesthetic requirement and provide preemptive analgesia; calculate local anesthetic dose by weight.

Triage ABCs: airway, breathing, circulation; assess mentation, mucous membrane color, CRT, and pulse quality before obtaining a full history.

CPR: chest compressions at 100-120/min, compression-to-ventilation ratio 30:2 without advanced airway or 10:2 with one; use a backboard and rotate compressors every 2 minutes.

Shock: crystalloid bolus 10-20 mL/kg (dogs) or 5-10 mL/kg (cats) over 15-20 minutes, reassess perfusion, and repeat; hypertonic saline 4-7 mL/kg may be used in large dogs.

Anaphylaxis: epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IM or IV (1:1000 diluted), fluid resuscitation, antihistamines, and corticosteroids; monitor for recurrence over 24 hours.

Gastric dilatation-volvulus: decompress with orogastric tube or trocarization, treat shock with fluids, and proceed to surgery; do not delay for radiographs if unstable.

Poisoning: decontamination with emesis (apomorphine) only if recent ingestion and no contraindications; activated charcoal 1-3 g/kg; contact a poison control service for specific antidotes.

Heatstroke: cool with room-temperature water and fans, not ice water; monitor for DIC, acute kidney injury, and hypoglycemia; target temperature 39.5 °C rather than overcooling.

Emergency drug doses: atropine 0.02-0.04 mg/kg, epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IV, lidocaine 2 mg/kg (dogs, not cats), diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV for seizures.

Low-stress handling: minimize restraint, use towels, pheromones, and treats, and allow the animal to approach; cats respond to covered carriers and gentle scruff-free restraint.

Muzzle use is indicated for painful or fearful dogs; a muzzle does not replace a secure hold and should not be used in brachycephalic or vomiting patients.

Feline restraint: use a towel wrap or cat bag; avoid scruffing, which increases fear and can cause injury; place a hand behind the head for injections.

Canine fear postures: tucked tail, ears back, lip licking, yawning, and whale eye indicate anxiety; escalation to growling or snapping is a warning, not a behavior to punish.

Behavior assessment: history includes onset, triggers, frequency, and consequences; medical causes (pain, endocrine, neurologic) must be ruled out before a behavior diagnosis.

Reinforcement: positive reinforcement increases behavior; negative punishment removes a stimulus to decrease behavior; aversive methods increase fear and are not recommended.

Separation anxiety treatment combines environmental enrichment, graduated departures, and sometimes medication; punishment worsens the condition.

Rabies quarantine and bite reporting: unvaccinated animals that bite require isolation per local law; vaccination status and exposure history are documented.

Informed consent: document discussion of risks, benefits, alternatives, and costs; the client signs the estimate and treatment plan before procedures.

Veterinary-client-patient relationship (VCPR) is required to prescribe medication; it involves assuming responsibility, sufficient knowledge, and availability for follow-up.

Estimates: provide a written range before treatment; update the client when costs exceed the estimate and document approval in the record.

Medical records: record date, signalment, history, exam findings, diagnosis, treatment, and client communication; records are legal documents and are retained per state law.

Confidentiality: client and patient information is not shared without consent except as required by law, such as reportable diseases or court order.

Euthanasia communication: use clear, gentle language, confirm the decision, explain the process, and offer aftercare options; avoid euphemisms that create confusion.

Conflict of interest and referral: disclose financial interests and refer to specialists when the case exceeds the practice's capability; the patient's welfare takes priority.

Controlled substance logs, OSHA safety training, and continuing education requirements are practice management obligations that vary by jurisdiction.

Normal adult dog: temperature 38.0-39.2 °C (100.5-102.5 °F), heart rate 60-160 bpm, respiratory rate 10-30 breaths/min; cats run higher (38.1-39.2 °C, 140-220 bpm, 20-30 breaths/min).

Daily fluid requirement ≈ 50-60 mL/kg/day for dogs and cats; maintenance infusion for a fasted patient is commonly 2-3 mL/kg/hr, adjusted for losses and perfusion.

Body condition score uses a 1-9 or 1-5 scale; a score of 4-5/9 (or 3/5) is ideal, and each point above ideal approximates 10-15% over ideal body weight.

Capillary refill time normally ≤2 seconds; prolonged CRT with pale mucous membranes suggests poor perfusion, while injected membranes suggest vasodilation or sepsis.

Pain scoring in dogs and cats uses validated tools (e.g., Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale, Colorado State acute pain scale); physiologic parameters alone underestimate pain.

Urine output target in hospitalized patients is 1-2 mL/kg/hr; oliguria is <0.5-1 mL/kg/hr and warrants fluid reassessment before diuretics.

Nutritional resting energy requirement (RER) = 70 × (body weight in kg)^0.75 kcal/day; illness factor multipliers are applied to RER to estimate daily needs.

Recumbent patients require turning every 4-6 hours, plus eye lubrication and bladder management, because pressure sores and corneal ulceration develop quickly.

Premedication classes: phenothiazines (acepromazine) cause vasodilation and hypotension; alpha-2 agonists (dexmedetomidine) cause bradycardia and hypertension followed by hypotension; benzodiazepines provide muscle relaxation and are reversible with flumazenil.

Induction agents: propofol (2-6 mg/kg IV titrated), alfaxalone (1-3 mg/kg IV), ketamine (5-10 mg/kg IM or 2-5 mg/kg IV); etomidate is preferred in critically ill or cardiovascularly unstable patients.

MAC concept: minimum alveolar concentration is the end-tidal concentration at which 50% of patients do not respond to a supramaximal stimulus; isoflurane MAC in dogs is about 1.3%, sevoflurane about 2.3%.

Anesthetic depth monitoring: jaw tone, palpebral reflex, eye position (eyes rotate ventrally as depth increases), and respiratory pattern; loss of palpebral reflex alone does not indicate a surgical plane.

Reversal agents: atipamezole reverses alpha-2 agonists (dose ≈ equal volume to dexmedetomidine), naloxone reverses opioids, flumazenil reverses benzodiazepines.

Multimodal analgesia combines NSAIDs (meloxicam 0.1-0.2 mg/kg), opioids (buprenorphine 0.01-0.02 mg/kg), local anesthetics (bupivacaine 1-2 mg/kg), and adjuncts such as gabapentin or ketamine CRI.

Hypothermia during anesthesia worsens recovery and coagulopathy; active warming (forced-air, circulating water blankets) plus warmed fluids is standard when temperature falls below 37 °C.

A leak test and pressure check of the anesthesia machine, plus verification of oxygen supply and scavenging, precede every anesthetic event; soda lime exhaustion presents as rising end-tidal CO2.

Surgical hand scrub: chlorhexidine gluconate or povidone-iodine scrub for 3-5 minutes covering hands and forearms, followed by alcohol-based or sterile-gown-and-glove technique; scrub brushes are not used on skin.

Patient skin prep: clip hair, remove loose hair, then alternate scrub and rinse with chlorhexidine or iodine solution three times, moving from incision site outward in concentric circles.

Sterile field rules: sterile personnel stay within the sterile field, non-sterile personnel maintain at least 12 inches distance, and any item touching a non-sterile surface is contaminated.

Instrument packs are sterilized by steam autoclave at 121 °C (15 psi) for 15-20 minutes or 132 °C for 3-4 minutes; biological indicators (Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores) verify efficacy.

Gown and glove order: open sterile gown, then gloves; closed gloving is used for the first pair, and the cuffs of the gown are considered sterile only when the gown is fully sterile.

Suture selection: absorbable monofilament (poliglecaprone, polydioxanone) for subcutaneous and fascial closure; nonabsorbable (nylon, polypropylene) for skin; chromic gut for mucosal surfaces.

Surgical counts: sponges, needles, and instruments are counted before and after the procedure and recorded; a discrepancy requires radiography and documentation before closure.

Postoperative wound assessment: serous discharge and mild swelling are expected in the first 24-72 hours; purulent discharge, dehiscence, or fever warrants culture and debridement.

NSAID contraindications: avoid in dehydration, renal disease, GI ulceration, coagulopathy, and concurrent corticosteroid use; meloxicam is approved for dogs and cats (single dose in cats).

Acetaminophen is toxic to cats (methemoglobinemia, Heinz body anemia) and should never be dispensed to them; ibuprofen and naproxen are also unsafe in dogs and cats.

Antibiotic stewardship: culture and susceptibility testing before starting empiric therapy; penicillins and cephalosporins are time-dependent, aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones concentration-dependent.

Drug calculations: dose (mg/kg) × body weight (kg) = total mg; volume (mL) = total mg ÷ concentration (mg/mL); always verify with a second calculation for chemotherapy and narrow-therapeutic drugs.

Controlled substances require DEA registration, secure storage, and inventory logs; ketamine, morphine, and midazolam are common examples in veterinary practice.

Common toxicities: permethrin spot-on products cause tremors in cats; macadamia nuts and grapes/raisins cause GI and renal signs in dogs; xylitol causes hypoglycemia and hepatic failure in dogs.

Praziquantel treats tapeworms (Dipylidium, Taenia); pyrantel treats roundworms and hookworms; fenbendazole covers giardia and some lungworms; ivermectin is avoided in MDR1-affected collies.

Corticosteroid tapering: abrupt withdrawal after long-term use risks adrenal insufficiency; anti-inflammatory doses are typically tapered over days to weeks based on clinical response.

PCV/TP: microhematocrit centrifugation yields PCV; plasma total protein is measured by refractometry after plasma separation. Normal PCV dog 37-55%, cat 30-45%; TP 5.5-7.5 g/dL.

CBC interpretation: anemia is regenerative when reticulocytes are increased; leukocytosis with left shift suggests inflammation or infection; stress leukogram shows mature neutrophilia, lymphopenia, and eosinopenia.

Serum biochemistry: BUN and creatinine reflect renal function; ALT and ALP reflect hepatobiliary injury; glucose, electrolytes, and albumin guide fluid and nutritional planning.

Urinalysis: assess specific gravity (dog 1.015-1.045, cat 1.035-1.060), pH, protein, glucose, ketones, bilirubin, and sediment; cystocentesis samples are preferred for culture.

Blood culture and cytology samples are collected aseptically; EDTA tubes for CBC, serum separator or heparin tubes for chemistry, and sodium citrate for coagulation testing.

Fecal flotation detects nematode eggs and coccidia; Giardia antigen ELISA is more sensitive than microscopy; heartworm antigen testing plus microfilaria testing is recommended.

Blood glucose meter readings may differ from laboratory values; confirm hypoglycemia with a laboratory sample and treat symptomatic patients immediately.

Cytology: fine-needle aspirate with a 22-25 gauge needle, smear thinly, air-dry, and stain with Diff-Quik; neoplastic cells often show anisokaryosis and prominent nucleoli.

Radiographic density: air (black) < fat < soft tissue/fluid < bone < metal (white); thoracic films require inspiration and are taken at end-inspiration.

Thoracic radiography: right lateral and left lateral plus VD or DV views; cats often require DV because lateral recumbency compresses the dependent lung.

Abdominal radiography: right lateral and VD views; loss of serosal detail suggests effusion, peritonitis, or emaciation; gas patterns localize obstruction.

Ultrasound: high-frequency transducers (7-15 MHz) for superficial structures, low-frequency (2-5 MHz) for deep abdomen; acoustic shadowing indicates mineralization or gas.

Radiation safety: ALARA principle; personal dosimeters, lead aprons, thyroid shields, and distance and shielding reduce exposure; never hold a patient in the primary beam.

Contrast studies: barium sulfate for GI studies (avoid if perforation suspected), iodinated contrast for excretory urography; monitor for aspiration and adverse reactions.

Dental radiography: full-mouth series uses parallel technique for mandibular premolars/molars and bisecting angle for maxillary teeth; evaluate for root resorption and bone loss.

CT and MRI: CT is superior for bone and pulmonary detail; MRI is preferred for brain and spinal cord; both require general anesthesia and metal screening.

Dental formula: permanent dog 2×(I3/3, C1/1, P4/4, M2/3) = 42 teeth; cat 2×(I3/3, C1/1, P3/2, M1/1) = 30 teeth; deciduous dog 28, cat 26.

Periodontal disease staging uses probing depth, attachment loss, and radiographs; normal sulcus depth ≤1-2 mm in cats and ≤1-3 mm in dogs.

Grade 1 gingivitis is reversible with plaque control; grade 3-4 periodontitis requires scaling, root planing, and possibly extraction with radiographs.

Dental scaling requires general anesthesia with a cuffed endotracheal tube and pharyngeal packing to prevent aspiration; hand scaling alone leaves subgingival calculus.

Tooth extraction: use elevators and luxation, then section multi-rooted teeth; close extraction sites with absorbable suture and confirm no root fragments radiographically.

Feline odontoclastic resorptive lesions (FORL) appear as pinkish defects at the gingival margin and require extraction or crown amputation, not restoration.

Home dental care: daily brushing with pet-safe enzymatic toothpaste is most effective; chlorhexidine rinses and dental diets are adjuncts, not substitutes.

Dental nerve blocks (infraorbital, mandibular, maxillary) reduce anesthetic requirement and provide preemptive analgesia; calculate local anesthetic dose by weight.

Triage ABCs: airway, breathing, circulation; assess mentation, mucous membrane color, CRT, and pulse quality before obtaining a full history.

CPR: chest compressions at 100-120/min, compression-to-ventilation ratio 30:2 without advanced airway or 10:2 with one; use a backboard and rotate compressors every 2 minutes.

Shock: crystalloid bolus 10-20 mL/kg (dogs) or 5-10 mL/kg (cats) over 15-20 minutes, reassess perfusion, and repeat; hypertonic saline 4-7 mL/kg may be used in large dogs.

Anaphylaxis: epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IM or IV (1:1000 diluted), fluid resuscitation, antihistamines, and corticosteroids; monitor for recurrence over 24 hours.

Gastric dilatation-volvulus: decompress with orogastric tube or trocarization, treat shock with fluids, and proceed to surgery; do not delay for radiographs if unstable.

Poisoning: decontamination with emesis (apomorphine) only if recent ingestion and no contraindications; activated charcoal 1-3 g/kg; contact a poison control service for specific antidotes.

Heatstroke: cool with room-temperature water and fans, not ice water; monitor for DIC, acute kidney injury, and hypoglycemia; target temperature 39.5 °C rather than overcooling.

Emergency drug doses: atropine 0.02-0.04 mg/kg, epinephrine 0.01 mg/kg IV, lidocaine 2 mg/kg (dogs, not cats), diazepam 0.5 mg/kg IV for seizures.

Low-stress handling: minimize restraint, use towels, pheromones, and treats, and allow the animal to approach; cats respond to covered carriers and gentle scruff-free restraint.

Muzzle use is indicated for painful or fearful dogs; a muzzle does not replace a secure hold and should not be used in brachycephalic or vomiting patients.

Feline restraint: use a towel wrap or cat bag; avoid scruffing, which increases fear and can cause injury; place a hand behind the head for injections.

Canine fear postures: tucked tail, ears back, lip licking, yawning, and whale eye indicate anxiety; escalation to growling or snapping is a warning, not a behavior to punish.

Behavior assessment: history includes onset, triggers, frequency, and consequences; medical causes (pain, endocrine, neurologic) must be ruled out before a behavior diagnosis.

Reinforcement: positive reinforcement increases behavior; negative punishment removes a stimulus to decrease behavior; aversive methods increase fear and are not recommended.

Separation anxiety treatment combines environmental enrichment, graduated departures, and sometimes medication; punishment worsens the condition.

Rabies quarantine and bite reporting: unvaccinated animals that bite require isolation per local law; vaccination status and exposure history are documented.

Informed consent: document discussion of risks, benefits, alternatives, and costs; the client signs the estimate and treatment plan before procedures.

Veterinary-client-patient relationship (VCPR) is required to prescribe medication; it involves assuming responsibility, sufficient knowledge, and availability for follow-up.

Estimates: provide a written range before treatment; update the client when costs exceed the estimate and document approval in the record.

Medical records: record date, signalment, history, exam findings, diagnosis, treatment, and client communication; records are legal documents and are retained per state law.

Confidentiality: client and patient information is not shared without consent except as required by law, such as reportable diseases or court order.

Euthanasia communication: use clear, gentle language, confirm the decision, explain the process, and offer aftercare options; avoid euphemisms that create confusion.

Conflict of interest and referral: disclose financial interests and refer to specialists when the case exceeds the practice's capability; the patient's welfare takes priority.

Controlled substance logs, OSHA safety training, and continuing education requirements are practice management obligations that vary by jurisdiction.