CPL Aircraft General Knowledge cheat sheet

Standard atmosphere at sea level: 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, density 1.225 kg/m³; temperature lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1000 ft up to 36 090 ft (tropopause).

Density altitude rises about 120 ft per 1 °C above ISA at a given pressure altitude; it governs take-off run, climb rate and engine power output.

Aircraft axis system: longitudinal (roll, ailerons), lateral (pitch, elevators), normal/vertical (yaw, rudder); all three axes pass through the centre of gravity.

Load factor n = L/W = 1/cos(bank angle) in a level coordinated turn; a 60° bank gives n = 2, so stall speed rises by √2 (about 41 %).

Limit load is the maximum expected in service; ultimate load = 1.5 × limit load, at which structural failure must not occur (CS/FAR 23.301).

Design gust and manoeuvre envelopes are plotted as V-n diagrams bounded by stall speed, design cruise speed VC, design dive speed VD and the positive/negative load limits.

MTOW, MLW, MZFW and MTW are structural limits; MZFW = MTOW − maximum fuel and caps payload plus empty mass.

Class A (CS-23) aircraft continue safe flight after failure of any one engine or system; Class B need not, but must allow a controlled forced landing.

Semi-monocoque structure carries load in the stressed skin and stringers; frames and bulkheads maintain shape and resist concentrated loads.

Fatigue life is consumed by pressurisation cycles and gust cycles; crack growth is managed by inspection programmes (fail-safe, safe-life, damage tolerance).

Primary flight controls: ailerons (roll), elevators or stabilator (pitch), rudder (yaw); secondary: flaps, slats, spoilers, trim tabs.

Differential ailerons give greater up-deflection than down-deflection to reduce adverse yaw, which is then corrected with rudder or aileron-rudder interconnect.

Flap extension increases CLmax and drag: take-off settings give lift with minimum drag penalty; landing settings give maximum lift and steep descent capability.

Trim tabs move opposite to the control surface to hold a deflection with zero stick force; balance tabs reduce hinge moment, anti-balance tabs increase feel.

Control reversal occurs when aerodynamic hinge moment twists the wing or tail faster than the surface can deflect; it sets the VNE/VMO limit for irreversible (hydraulic) controls.

Flutter is an aeroelastic instability whose critical speed falls with reduced stiffness or mass balance loss; mass balance weights ahead of the hinge line raise it.

DC bus voltage on light aircraft is typically 14 V or 28 V; a 28 V system charges a 24 V lead-acid or NiCd battery and is protected by current limiters and reverse-current relays.

Alternators/generators are rated in amperes at regulated voltage; a failed alternator leaves battery-only endurance of roughly battery capacity (Ah) divided by essential load (A).

Hydraulic pressure is set by a pressure regulator or relief valve; typical transport values are 2000–3000 psi (140–210 bar), with accumulators damping pulses and supplying emergency pressure.

Redundancy: duplicate pumps, check valves, isolation valves and a standby/emergency system (RAT or electric pump) allow continued operation after a single failure.

Pneumatic bleed air from the engine compressor supplies air conditioning, pressurisation, anti-ice and engine starting; bleed valves close to protect the engine during start or failure.

Fuel system: tank vents prevent vacuum or overpressure, booster pumps supply engines above vapour pressure, and crossfeed allows any tank to feed either engine; unusable fuel is excluded from usable capacity.

Fuel quantity must be checked by dipstick or gauges before flight; jet fuel grades Jet A, Jet A-1, Jet B differ in freeze point (Jet A-1 about −47 °C, Jet A about −40 °C).

Ice protection: pneumatic de-ice boots, thermal anti-ice (bleed air or electric) for wing leading edges, propeller and windshield; pitot heat and static heat are essential for instrument accuracy.

Rain protection uses windshield wipers, rain repellent or bleed-air rain removal; ice detectors and static dischargers protect systems and radio reception.

Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, power, exhaust; the crankshaft turns twice per cycle, so a 4-cylinder engine fires twice per revolution.

Power depends on mass airflow: manifold pressure (MAP) and rpm; at constant rpm, increasing MAP increases power, and full-throttle MAP falls about 1 inHg per 1000 ft of altitude.

Mixture control: best power is about 50–100 °F rich of peak EGT; best economy lean of peak; detonation and pre-ignition are avoided by limiting MAP, rpm and CHT.

Fixed-pitch propellers lose efficiency at high rpm; constant-speed units use a governor to hold selected rpm by varying blade pitch, with feathering for feathered shutdown.

Propeller thrust T = power/velocity in the ideal case; geometric pitch minus effective pitch equals slip, and blade element angle of attack governs thrust and drag.

Turbine engine: air is compressed, mixed with fuel and ignited, expanding through a turbine that drives the compressor; excess energy produces thrust or shaft power (turboprop).

Turbine limits: EGT/ITT and N1/N2 and torque are monitored; hot starts, hung starts and exceedances require shutdown and inspection per the manual.

Jet engine thrust falls with altitude and rises with density; specific fuel consumption is lowest at high altitude and high bypass ratio.

Pitot-static: ASI uses pitot and static pressure, altimeter uses static pressure only, VSI uses a calibrated leak to measure rate of change of static pressure.

Indicated airspeed errors: position (static source) error, instrument error, compressibility error; IAS corrected for these gives CAS, then EAS = CAS × √(ρ/ρ0).

Altimeter setting: below transition altitude set QNH for altitude above mean sea level; above transition level set standard 1013.25 hPa for flight levels.

Gyroscopic instruments: attitude and heading indicators use rigidity in space; the turn coordinator uses precession and shows rate of turn and slip (ball) for coordinated flight.

Magnetic compass errors: variation (true vs magnetic), deviation (aircraft magnetism), and turning/dip errors in a turn or acceleration; ANDS = accelerate north, decelerate south.

Warning systems: stall warning (angle of attack vane or reed), overspeed warning, GPWS/EGPWS (terrain), TCAS (traffic), and master caution/warning with annunciators.

Performance limitations: V speeds V1 (decision), VR (rotation), V2 (take-off safety), VNE, VNO, VFE, VLE, VMO/MMO; exceedance may cause structural or control loss.

Take-off and landing distances are affected by density altitude, wind, slope, weight and runway condition; wet or contaminated runways increase landing distance and reduce braking coefficient.

Weight and balance: CG must lie within forward and aft limits; forward CG increases stall speed and pitch force, aft CG reduces stability and can cause unrecoverable stall.

Airworthiness limits are published in the AFM/POH and the structural limitations section; operating outside them invalidates the certificate of airworthiness.

Electrical load analysis must show the alternator can carry continuous plus intermittent loads; load shedding protects essential buses after generator loss.

Hydraulic fluid types (mineral, phosphate-ester, Skydrol) must not be mixed; seals and materials differ and mixing causes seal damage.

Pressurisation: cabin differential pressure is limited by relief valves (typically 8–9 psi on transports); cabin altitude and rate of change are controlled by outflow valves.

Fire detection uses thermocouples or optical sensors in engines and APU; extinguishing agents are halon or inert gas, with two-shot bottles on transports.

Oxygen systems: crew and passenger masks, chemical or gaseous supply; oxygen is required above 10 000 ft for prolonged flight and always above 13 000 ft (varies by regulation).

Engine indications and limits are cross-checked with the AFM; trend monitoring of EGT, oil consumption and vibration detects deterioration before failure.

Emergency equipment: ELT, fire extinguishers, life jackets, slides; their serviceability is part of the pre-flight and periodic inspection.

Wing bending moment is highest at the root; spar caps carry bending, webs carry shear, and ribs transfer loads to the skin.

Pressurised fuselage hoop stress = p·r/t; longitudinal stress is half the hoop stress for a thin cylinder.

Control surface hinge moment depends on dynamic pressure, surface area, chord and deflection; hydraulic actuators must overcome it at VMO/VD.

Control locks and gust locks must be removed before flight; a locked surface can cause loss of control at rotation.

Flight control rigging: correct cable tension, pulley alignment and stops ensure full deflection without overtravel; stops must be checked at the surface, not the cockpit.

Balanced control surfaces (horn, inset, or Frise) reduce hinge moment and prevent control overbalance and flutter.

High-lift devices: slats increase CLmax at high angle of attack; flaps increase both CL and CD, and split flaps give more drag than lift.

Structural inspection: visual and NDT (eddy current, ultrasonic, dye penetrant, radiography) detect cracks in high-stress areas such as wing spar and pressure bulkhead.

Battery capacity is rated in ampere-hours at a 1-hour or 20-hour rate; cold-cranking performance falls sharply at low temperature.

Bus tie and essential bus design: essential loads (instruments, radios, gear, flaps) remain powered after loss of the main generator.

Hydraulic system: reservoir pressurisation prevents cavitation; filters and chip detectors monitor contamination; fluid temperature affects viscosity and response.

Pneumatic system pressure is regulated by bleed valves and PRSOV; overpressure is relieved by a bleed air leak detection loop that closes the valve.

Fuel: water and sediment settle at sump drains; check drains before flight; fuel temperature must stay above the fuel freeze point plus a margin.

Fuel imbalance is corrected by crossfeed; running a tank dry can cause flameout and requires relight procedure.

Anti-ice: thermal anti-ice uses hot bleed air on wing and engine intakes; de-ice boots inflate cyclically and must not be used on a clean wing as they can bridge ice.

Rain and ice protection for pitot and static ports must be on before entering icing; loss of pitot heat gives erroneous airspeed and altitude indications.

Piston engine power = MAP × rpm relationship; a rough guide is that 1 inHg MAP at 2700 rpm approximates a fixed percentage of rated power, so 24 inHg at 2400 rpm is about 60 %.

Carburettor icing occurs at 0–20 °C with high humidity; apply carb heat before reducing power and expect a temporary rpm drop.

Turbocharging maintains MAP to a critical altitude; above it MAP falls and the wastegate is fully closed.

Turbine start sequence: starter rotates N2, ignition on, fuel on, light-off EGT rise, stabilisation at idle; abort on hot start, hung start or no light-off.

Turbine engine parameters: N1 (fan/low-pressure), N2 (high-pressure), EGT/ITT, fuel flow, oil pressure and temperature; all must be within limits before take-off.

Thrust reversers and afterburners are auxiliary thrust devices; reversers must be stowed and locked before flight and are used only on the ground.

Propeller: blade angle, pitch and rpm; a windmilling propeller creates high drag, so feathering is used after engine failure on multi-engine aircraft.

Engine oil: grade and consumption limits per manual; low oil pressure or high temperature requires shutdown and inspection.

Pitot blockage: if the pitot is blocked but static is clear, the ASI behaves like an altimeter - climb gives increasing airspeed, descent decreasing.

Static blockage: ASI over-reads in climb and under-reads in descent; altimeter freezes; VSI reads zero after the initial transient.

Altimeter errors: instrument error, scale error, temperature error (cold air gives true altitude lower than indicated) and pressure error.

Turn coordinator shows rate of turn and quality; a standard rate turn is 3°/s, requiring a bank angle of about 15 % of true airspeed.

GPWS modes: excessive descent rate, excessive terrain closure, altitude loss after take-off, unsafe terrain clearance, excessive glideslope deviation; EGPWS adds a terrain database.

TCAS II gives traffic advisories and resolution advisories; RA commands must be followed, and the aircraft must be separated vertically by 1000 ft normally.

V speeds: V1 decision speed, VR rotation, V2 take-off safety speed, VMCA minimum control speed (air), VMCG (ground), VNE never-exceed, VNO maximum structural cruise.

Performance: take-off distance increases with weight, altitude, temperature and tailwind; landing distance increases with weight, altitude, temperature, tailwind and runway contamination.

Weight and balance: calculate CG from moments (weight × arm) and check against the envelope; ballast or load redistribution restores limits.

Stall speed V_S = √(2W/(ρ S CLmax)); it rises with weight, altitude (density) and load factor, and falls with flap extension.

Master caution and warning systems group failures by urgency; aural warnings (horn, siren, voice) accompany visual annunciators.

Landing gear: hydraulic or electric retraction, down-locks and uplocks, squat switches prevent retraction on the ground, and a warning horn sounds if gear is up with power reduced.

Brakes: hydraulic or pneumatic, with anti-skid and auto-brake on transports; brake energy limits and cooling times must be respected after a rejected take-off.

Air conditioning and pressurisation: packs use bleed air, outflow valves control cabin pressure, and a cabin altitude above 10 000 ft requires oxygen for occupants.

Electrical: generator failure is indicated by zero ammeter or a warning light; the battery then supplies essential loads and the flight must be planned to land before depletion.

Fuel: quantity, balance and temperature; jet fuel freeze point and fuel heater operation must be monitored on long flights.

Ice and rain: airframe ice increases weight and drag and reduces lift; use anti-ice before ice accretion and de-ice cyclically; report icing to ATC.

Performance: use the AFM performance charts for the actual weight, pressure altitude, temperature, wind and runway condition; do not extrapolate beyond chart limits.

Propeller efficiency = thrust power / shaft power; it peaks at a design advance ratio and falls at very high or very low speed.

Constant-speed propeller governor senses rpm and ports oil to change blade angle; loss of oil pressure usually drives the propeller to fine pitch (high rpm) or feather, per design.

Feathering reduces drag and vibration after engine failure; unfeathering uses accumulator pressure or starter to return blades to fine pitch.

Propeller ice protection uses electric heating elements on the blades; boots must be checked before flight in icing conditions.

Piston engine ignition: dual magnetos provide redundancy; a mag check at run-up should show a small rpm drop on each, and a dead mag requires maintenance.

Turbine fuel control: hydro-mechanical or FADEC units schedule fuel for start, acceleration and steady state, and protect against overspeed and over-temperature.

Engine fire: shut off fuel, ignition and bleed, discharge the extinguisher, and land as soon as possible; do not restart.

Engine monitoring: trend EGT, oil consumption, vibration and borescope inspection to detect compressor fouling, hot section distress and bearing wear.

Air data computer combines pitot, static, temperature and angle of attack to compute CAS, TAS, Mach, altitude and vertical speed for displays.

EFIS displays attitude, heading, airspeed, altitude and navigation data; a display failure requires reversion to standby instruments.

AHRS/IRS provide attitude and heading without moving parts; alignment is required before flight and drift accumulates over time.

Radio altimeter measures height above terrain up to about 2500 ft and feeds GPWS and autoland; it is independent of barometric altitude.

Warning priority: fire, stall, overspeed, configuration, then cautions; the master warning/caution reset must be actioned after identifying the fault.

Performance limitations: VMO/MMO is the maximum operating speed; exceeding it risks flutter, control reversal and structural overload.

Take-off performance: balanced field length is the longer of accelerate-stop and accelerate-go distances; V1 is chosen so both are equal or within limits.

Landing performance: approach speed VREF = 1.3 VSO (or 1.23 VS1g), and landing distance must fit the available runway with the required margin.

Flight control systems: mechanical (cables, rods, bellcranks), hydromechanical, fly-by-wire with computers and redundancy; FBW gives envelope protection and reduced weight.

Fly-by-wire normal law provides stall and overspeed protection, bank and pitch limits; alternate and direct law reduce or remove protections after failures.

Autopilot: servo or electric trim, mode annunciation, and disconnect on override; it must be monitored and disconnected in turbulence or upset.

Stall protection: stick shaker (AoA), stick pusher, and envelope protection in FBW; recovery requires reducing AoA and adding power.

Gust and manoeuvre loads: load factor limits are +2.5/−1.0 g for normal category and +3.8/−1.52 g for utility, with higher limits for aerobatic.

Structural repair: damage must be assessed against the structural repair manual; exceeding allowable damage requires engineering disposition.

Control surface balance: mass balance must be maintained after repainting or repair to avoid flutter.

Landing gear structure: shock struts absorb landing loads; torque links maintain wheel alignment and must be checked for wear.

Electrical protection: circuit breakers and fuses isolate faults; a popped breaker must not be reset in flight unless the AFM allows it.

Generator control unit regulates voltage and protects against over/under voltage and overfrequency; a trip requires load shedding.

Hydraulic redundancy: engine-driven pumps, electric standby pumps and a RAT or air-driven pump supply the system after failure; PTU transfers power between systems.

Pneumatic leak detection: overheat loops close the bleed valve and illuminate a fault; do not reset without confirming the leak is cleared.

Fuel system: boost pumps, crossfeed, jettison (on large aircraft) and fuel temperature indication; fuel imbalance limits are in the AFM.

Ice protection: anti-ice prevents ice (thermal, electric), de-ice removes it (boots); ice detectors alert the crew to activate protection.

Rain protection: windshield heat prevents fogging and icing; wipers and rain repellent improve visibility.

Oxygen and pressurisation: cabin altitude warning and masks; a rapid decompression requires oxygen and emergency descent to 10 000 ft or MSA.

Piston engine starting: prime, mixture rich, throttle cracked, starter engaged; a flooded engine is cleared with mixture idle cut-off and throttle open.

Leaning: lean for taxi and cruise; at high altitude lean before descent to maintain smooth operation and avoid fouling.

Turbocharged engine: wastegate controls MAP; overboost is prevented by a wastegate or overboost valve, and the throttle must be retarded smoothly.

Turbine engine: compressor stall/surge indicated by bang, EGT rise and rpm fluctuation; reduce power, check bleed configuration and land if persistent.

Turbine engine: flameout requires relight within the starter or windmill envelope; follow the AFM relight procedure.

Engine anti-ice and bleed: use engine anti-ice in icing conditions; bleed air extraction reduces thrust and must be accounted for in performance.

Propeller: overspeed is controlled by the governor; a runaway propeller requires reduction of power and feathering if possible.

Engine limits: monitor oil pressure/temperature, EGT, N1/N2 and fuel flow; exceedance requires a report and inspection.

Stall warning: AoA vane or reed switch activates a horn or stick shaker before the stall; it must be tested before flight.

Overspeed warning: aural warning at VMO/MMO; reduce thrust and pitch up gently to slow down.

Configuration warning: gear up with flaps selected or power reduced triggers a horn; check configuration before landing.

GPWS/EGPWS: alerts on excessive descent rate, terrain closure, altitude loss after take-off, glideslope deviation and bank angle; EGPWS adds terrain display.

TCAS: TA and RA; follow RA commands, and do not manoeuvre opposite to an RA.

Performance: density altitude, wind, slope and runway condition drive take-off and landing distance; use the AFM charts and apply the required margins.

V speeds and limits: VNE, VNO, VFE, VLE, VMO/MMO, VMCA, VMCG; each must be respected and are shown on the ASI markings.

Weight and balance: CG limits and maximum weights; a forward CG increases stall speed and pitch force, an aft CG reduces stability.

Airframe: fuselage, wings, empennage, landing gear; primary structure carries flight and ground loads and must be inspected for fatigue and corrosion.

Systems: electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, ice and rain, oxygen, fire protection; each has redundancy and warning indications.

Powerplants: piston engines (normally aspirated or turbocharged) and turbine engines (turbojet, turbofan, turboprop); each has specific operating limits.

Propellers: fixed-pitch, variable-pitch and constant-speed; feathering and reversing are additional capabilities.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, magnetic, and electronic displays; each has specific errors and failure modes.

Warning systems: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS, fire, and master caution/warning.

Performance limitations: V speeds, weight limits, CG limits, and take-off/landing distances from the AFM.

Regulatory: aircraft must be operated within the AFM limitations and maintained per the approved maintenance programme.

Primary controls: ailerons, elevators, rudder; secondary: flaps, slats, spoilers, trim; each has specific effect on lift, drag and control.

Control system: cables, pulleys, bellcranks, rods, and hydraulic actuators; rigging and tension must be correct for proper response.

Fly-by-wire: computers interpret pilot inputs and provide envelope protection; redundancy is achieved with multiple computers and power sources.

Stall protection: stick shaker and pusher; recovery requires reducing AoA and adding power.

Loads: manoeuvre and gust loads; load factor limits depend on category; exceeding them risks structural damage.

Flutter: aeroelastic instability; mass balance and stiffness are critical; exceeding VNE risks flutter.

Control reversal: aerodynamic forces twist the structure faster than the surface deflects; it limits VMO/MMO for irreversible controls.

Inspection: NDT methods detect cracks; damage tolerance and fail-safe design require scheduled inspections.

Electrical: DC and AC systems; generators, batteries, buses, and protection; a failure requires load shedding and planning to land.

Hydraulic: pumps, reservoirs, accumulators, valves, and actuators; pressure and fluid quantity must be monitored.

Pneumatic: bleed air for air conditioning, pressurisation, anti-ice and starting; leak detection protects the system.

Fuel: tanks, pumps, valves, crossfeed; quantity, balance and temperature must be monitored; water drains checked before flight.

Ice protection: anti-ice (thermal, electric) and de-ice (boots); activate before ice accretion and monitor for ice build-up.

Rain protection: windshield heat, wipers, rain repellent; visibility must be maintained for landing.

Oxygen: crew and passenger systems; masks and supply must be checked before flight.

Fire protection: detection and extinguishing; engine and APU fire requires shutdown and discharge.

Piston engine: four-stroke cycle; power depends on MAP and rpm; mixture and carb heat are critical controls.

Turbocharging: maintains MAP to critical altitude; wastegate and overboost protection are essential.

Turbine engine: compressor, combustor, turbine; thrust or shaft power; limits on EGT, N1/N2, torque.

Starting: follow the checklist; abort on hot start, hung start or no light-off.

Propeller: fixed-pitch, constant-speed, feathering, reversing; governor controls rpm by varying pitch.

Engine anti-ice and bleed: use in icing; bleed extraction reduces performance.

Monitoring: EGT, oil pressure/temperature, fuel flow, vibration; trend monitoring detects deterioration.

Emergency: engine fire or failure requires shutdown, extinguisher, and landing as soon as possible.

Pitot-static: ASI, altimeter, VSI; blockages cause specific errors; pitot heat is essential in icing.

Gyroscopic: attitude, heading, turn coordinator; rigidity and precession; alignment and drift.

Magnetic: compass with variation and deviation; turning and acceleration errors.

Electronic: EFIS, EICAS/ECAM, air data computers; redundancy and reversion to standby.

Warnings: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS, fire, master caution/warning.

Performance: V speeds, weight and CG limits, take-off and landing distances; use AFM charts.

Density altitude: affects performance; calculate for the actual conditions.

Weight and balance: CG limits; forward CG increases stall speed, aft CG reduces stability.

Airframe and systems are integrated: electrical power drives hydraulic pumps, fuel pumps and avionics; hydraulic power moves flight controls and gear.

Pneumatic bleed air supplies air conditioning, pressurisation, anti-ice and engine starting; bleed extraction affects performance.

Fuel system supplies engines and APU; balance and temperature are monitored; crossfeed corrects imbalance.

Ice and rain protection: anti-ice and de-ice; pitot heat and windshield heat are essential.

Powerplants: piston and turbine; each has specific limits and emergency procedures.

Propellers: thrust and drag; feathering and reversing; governor control.

Instruments and warnings: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electronic; stall, overspeed, GPWS, TCAS.

Performance: V speeds, weight and CG, take-off and landing distances; operate within AFM limits.

Semi-monocoque: stressed skin, stringers, frames; carries loads and maintains shape.

Fatigue: pressurisation and gust cycles; inspection programmes manage crack growth.

Primary controls: ailerons, elevators, rudder; secondary: flaps, slats, spoilers, trim.

Flaps: increase CLmax and drag; take-off and landing settings differ.

Trim tabs: reduce control forces; balance and anti-balance tabs affect feel.

Flutter: aeroelastic instability; mass balance and stiffness; VNE limit.

Control reversal: aerodynamic twist limits VMO/MMO for irreversible controls.

Inspection: NDT methods; damage tolerance and fail-safe design.

Electrical: 14/28 V DC; alternators, batteries, buses; protection and load shedding.

Hydraulic: pressure 2000–3000 psi; accumulators; redundancy and standby pumps.

Pneumatic: bleed air; leak detection; overpressure protection.

Fuel: tanks, pumps, crossfeed; water drains; temperature and balance.

Ice protection: thermal anti-ice, de-ice boots, propeller heat; activate before ice.

Rain protection: windshield heat, wipers, repellent.

Oxygen: crew and passenger; masks and supply.

Fire protection: detection and extinguishing; engine and APU fire procedures.

Piston: four-stroke; power from MAP and rpm; mixture and carb heat.

Turbocharging: maintains MAP to critical altitude; overboost protection.

Turbine: compressor, combustor, turbine; EGT, N1/N2, torque limits.

Starting: follow checklist; abort on hot/hung start.

Propeller: constant-speed governor; feathering and reversing.

Anti-ice and bleed: use in icing; performance penalty.

Monitoring: trend EGT, oil, vibration.

Emergency: fire or failure; shutdown and land.

Pitot-static: ASI, altimeter, VSI; blockage errors; pitot heat.

Gyroscopic: attitude, heading, turn coordinator; rigidity and precession.

Magnetic: compass; variation and deviation; turning errors.

Electronic: EFIS, EICAS/ECAM, ADC; redundancy.

Warnings: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS, fire.

Performance: V speeds, weight and CG, distances; AFM charts.

Density altitude: affects performance.

Weight and balance: CG limits; stability effects.

Airframe: fuselage, wings, empennage, gear; primary structure and inspection.

Systems: electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, ice/rain, oxygen, fire.

Powerplants: piston and turbine; limits and procedures.

Propellers: fixed, variable, constant-speed; feathering and reversing.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, magnetic, electronic.

Warnings: stall, overspeed, GPWS, TCAS, fire, master caution.

Performance: V speeds, weights, CG, distances.

Regulatory: operate within AFM limits and maintenance programme.

Primary controls: ailerons, elevators, rudder; secondary: flaps, slats, spoilers, trim.

Control system: cables, pulleys, bellcranks, rods, actuators; rigging and tension.

Fly-by-wire: computers, envelope protection, redundancy.

Stall protection: stick shaker/pusher; recovery.

Loads: manoeuvre and gust; load factor limits.

Flutter: mass balance and stiffness; VNE.

Control reversal: limits VMO/MMO.

Inspection: NDT; damage tolerance.

Electrical: generator failure; load shedding; battery endurance.

Hydraulic: pump failure; standby pumps; PTU; RAT.

Pneumatic: leak detection; valve closure; overpressure.

Fuel: imbalance; crossfeed; temperature; water drains.

Ice protection: anti-ice and de-ice; activate before ice.

Rain protection: windshield heat; wipers.

Oxygen: masks; supply; decompression.

Fire: detection; extinguishing; shutdown.

Piston: MAP and rpm; mixture; carb heat.

Turbocharging: wastegate; overboost.

Turbine: EGT, N1/N2, torque; start sequence.

Propeller: governor; feathering; reversing.

Anti-ice and bleed: performance penalty.

Monitoring: trend EGT, oil, vibration.

Emergency: fire or failure; shutdown.

Limits: AFM and engine manual.

V speeds: V1, VR, V2, VNE, VNO, VFE, VLE, VMO/MMO, VMCA, VMCG.

Density altitude: affects take-off and landing distances.

Weight and balance: CG limits; stability effects.

Take-off performance: balanced field length; V1 selection.

Landing performance: VREF; runway margin.

Warning systems: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electronic; errors.

AFM limits: operate within published limitations.

Airframe: structure and inspection; fatigue and corrosion.

Systems: electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, ice/rain, oxygen, fire.

Powerplants: piston and turbine; limits and procedures.

Propellers: constant-speed; feathering; reversing.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electronic; warnings.

Performance: V speeds, weights, CG, distances.

Emergency: fire, failure, decompression.

Regulatory: AFM and maintenance programme.

Wing bending: spar caps and webs; root is highest moment.

Pressurisation: hoop stress = p·r/t; longitudinal half.

Hinge moment: dynamic pressure, area, chord, deflection.

Control locks: remove before flight; loss of control risk.

Rigging: cable tension; stops checked at surface.

Balanced surfaces: horn, inset, Frise; flutter prevention.

High-lift devices: slats and flaps; CL and CD effects.

Inspection: NDT; damage tolerance.

Electrical: 14/28 V DC; alternators; batteries; buses; protection.

Hydraulic: pressure; accumulators; redundancy; fluid types.

Pneumatic: bleed air; leak detection; overpressure.

Fuel: tanks, pumps, crossfeed; water drains; temperature.

Ice protection: thermal, electric, boots; activate before ice.

Rain protection: windshield heat; wipers; repellent.

Oxygen: crew and passenger; masks; supply.

Fire: detection; extinguishing; shutdown.

Piston: four-stroke; MAP and rpm; mixture; carb heat.

Turbocharging: wastegate; overboost protection.

Turbine: compressor, combustor, turbine; EGT, N1/N2, torque.

Starting: checklist; abort on hot/hung start.

Propeller: governor; feathering; reversing.

Anti-ice and bleed: performance penalty.

Monitoring: trend EGT, oil, vibration.

Emergency: fire or failure; shutdown.

Pitot-static: ASI, altimeter, VSI; blockage errors; pitot heat.

Gyroscopic: attitude, heading, turn coordinator; rigidity and precession.

Magnetic: compass; variation and deviation; turning errors.

Electronic: EFIS, EICAS/ECAM, ADC; redundancy.

Warnings: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS, fire.

Performance: V speeds, weight and CG, distances; AFM charts.

Density altitude: affects performance.

Weight and balance: CG limits; stability effects.

Airframe and systems integration: electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, ice/rain.

Powerplants: piston and turbine; limits and procedures.

Propellers: constant-speed; feathering; reversing.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electronic; warnings.

Performance: V speeds, weights, CG, distances.

Emergency: fire, failure, decompression.

Regulatory: AFM and maintenance programme.

Operation: within published limitations.

Primary controls: ailerons, elevators, rudder; secondary: flaps, slats, spoilers, trim.

Control system: cables, pulleys, bellcranks, rods, actuators; rigging.

Fly-by-wire: computers; envelope protection; redundancy.

Stall protection: stick shaker/pusher; recovery.

Loads: manoeuvre and gust; load factor limits.

Flutter: mass balance and stiffness; VNE.

Control reversal: limits VMO/MMO.

Inspection: NDT; damage tolerance.

Electrical: generator failure; load shedding; battery endurance.

Hydraulic: pump failure; standby pumps; PTU; RAT.

Pneumatic: leak detection; valve closure; overpressure.

Fuel: imbalance; crossfeed; temperature; water drains.

Ice protection: anti-ice and de-ice; activate before ice.

Rain protection: windshield heat; wipers.

Oxygen: masks; supply; decompression.

Fire: detection; extinguishing; shutdown.

Piston: MAP and rpm; mixture; carb heat.

Turbocharging: wastegate; overboost.

Turbine: EGT, N1/N2, torque; start sequence.

Propeller: governor; feathering; reversing.

Anti-ice and bleed: performance penalty.

Monitoring: trend EGT, oil, vibration.

Emergency: fire or failure; shutdown.

Limits: AFM and engine manual.

V speeds: V1, VR, V2, VNE, VNO, VFE, VLE, VMO/MMO, VMCA, VMCG.

Density altitude: affects take-off and landing distances.

Weight and balance: CG limits; stability effects.

Take-off performance: balanced field length; V1 selection.

Landing performance: VREF; runway margin.

Warning systems: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electronic; errors.

AFM limits: operate within published limitations.

Airframe: fuselage, wings, empennage, gear; primary structure and inspection.

Systems: electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, ice/rain, oxygen, fire.

Powerplants: piston and turbine; limits and procedures.

Propellers: fixed, variable, constant-speed; feathering and reversing.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, magnetic, electronic.

Warnings: stall, overspeed, GPWS, TCAS, fire, master caution.

Performance: V speeds, weights, CG, distances.

Regulatory: operate within AFM limits and maintenance programme.

Semi-monocoque: stressed skin, stringers, frames; carries loads and maintains shape.

Fatigue: pressurisation and gust cycles; inspection programmes manage crack growth.

Primary controls: ailerons, elevators, rudder; secondary: flaps, slats, spoilers, trim.

Flaps: increase CLmax and drag; take-off and landing settings differ.

Trim tabs: reduce control forces; balance and anti-balance tabs affect feel.

Flutter: aeroelastic instability; mass balance and stiffness; VNE limit.

Control reversal: aerodynamic twist limits VMO/MMO for irreversible controls.

Inspection: NDT methods; damage tolerance and fail-safe design.

Electrical: 14/28 V DC; alternators, batteries, buses; protection and load shedding.

Hydraulic: pressure 2000–3000 psi; accumulators; redundancy and standby pumps.

Pneumatic: bleed air; leak detection; overpressure protection.

Fuel: tanks, pumps, crossfeed; water drains; temperature and balance.

Ice protection: thermal anti-ice, de-ice boots, propeller heat; activate before ice.

Rain protection: windshield heat, wipers, repellent.

Oxygen: crew and passenger; masks and supply.

Fire protection: detection and extinguishing; engine and APU fire procedures.

Piston: four-stroke; power from MAP and rpm; mixture and carb heat.

Turbocharging: maintains MAP to critical altitude; overboost protection.

Turbine: compressor, combustor, turbine; EGT, N1/N2, torque limits.

Starting: follow checklist; abort on hot/hung start.

Propeller: constant-speed governor; feathering and reversing.

Anti-ice and bleed: use in icing; performance penalty.

Monitoring: trend EGT, oil, vibration.

Emergency: fire or failure; shutdown and land.

Pitot-static: ASI, altimeter, VSI; blockage errors; pitot heat.

Gyroscopic: attitude, heading, turn coordinator; rigidity and precession.

Magnetic: compass; variation and deviation; turning errors.

Electronic: EFIS, EICAS/ECAM, ADC; redundancy.

Warnings: stall, overspeed, configuration, GPWS, TCAS, fire.

Performance: V speeds, weight and CG, distances; AFM charts.

Density altitude: affects performance.

Weight and balance: CG limits; stability effects.

Airframe: structure and inspection; fatigue and corrosion.

Systems: electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, ice/rain, oxygen, fire.

Powerplants: piston and turbine; limits and procedures.

Propellers: constant-speed; feathering; reversing.

Instruments: pitot-static, gyroscopic, electronic; warnings.

Performance: V speeds, weights, CG, distances.

Emergency: fire, failure, decompression.

Regulatory: AFM and maintenance programme.