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GCE O/L Civic Education study materials
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GCE O/L Civic Education practice questions

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Question 1Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which document sets out the fundamental rights and freedoms of citizens in Sri Lanka?

  1. The Constitution Correct answer.
  2. The Penal Code
  3. The Local Government Ordinance
  4. The National Flag Rules

Explanation

The Constitution is the supreme law of Sri Lanka and contains the chapter on fundamental rights, which courts can enforce. Other statutes and rules regulate particular matters but cannot override constitutional rights.

Question 2Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A citizen who witnesses an offence in public is expected to report it to the police because citizenship mainly involves which of the following?

  1. Paying taxes only when services are received
  2. Loyalty to a single political party
  3. Obeying only the laws that suit the individual
  4. Civic responsibility towards the community Correct answer.

Explanation

Citizenship means belonging to a state with both rights and duties, including helping maintain law and order and public safety. Reporting crime is a civic duty that supports the community rather than a personal choice.

Question 3Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following is a political right of a citizen?

  1. The right to free education
  2. The right to medical treatment
  3. The right to a clean environment
  4. The right to vote at elections Correct answer.

Explanation

Political rights allow citizens to take part in governing the state, and the franchise is the clearest example. Education, health and a clean environment are social and economic rights or welfare entitlements.

Question 4Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

The national flag of Sri Lanka contains the lion holding a sword, which chiefly symbolises what?

  1. The power of the judiciary
  2. The wealth of the business sector
  3. The authority of local councils
  4. The courage and strength of the nation Correct answer.

Explanation

National symbols carry shared meanings; the lion with the sword is understood to represent courage, strength and the heritage of the country. The other symbols on the flag represent the communities and their religions.

Question 5Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Respecting the national anthem at a public ceremony is best described as an example of which kind of duty?

  1. A contractual duty of employment
  2. A moral and civic duty Correct answer.
  3. A duty owed only to family members
  4. A legal duty enforceable by fine

Explanation

Showing respect to national symbols is a civic and moral obligation that expresses loyalty to the country. It is not usually enforced by a specific penalty in the way a legal duty is.

Question 6Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which institution is responsible for holding elections in Sri Lanka?

  1. The Public Service Commission
  2. The Election Commission Correct answer.
  3. The Supreme Court
  4. The Central Bank

Explanation

An independent Election Commission conducts and supervises elections and referendums. The courts may hear election petitions, but they do not organise polls.

Question 7Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following best describes the term 'rule of law'?

  1. Only citizens must obey the law
  2. Everyone, including officials, is subject to the law Correct answer.
  3. The government rules without any judicial review
  4. The law is made by the army in an emergency

Explanation

The rule of law means that law, not personal power, governs society and applies equally to rulers and the ruled. It also requires independent courts and fair procedures.

Question 8Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A student joins a neighbourhood clean-up campaign without payment. This action best illustrates which value of good citizenship?

  1. Seeking personal profit
  2. Volunteering for community welfare Correct answer.
  3. Avoiding public duties
  4. Competing for political office

Explanation

Voluntary service that benefits the community is a recognised expression of good citizenship. It builds social responsibility without any expectation of reward.

Question 9Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following situations is a direct violation of the fundamental right to equality before the law?

  1. A bank requiring identification to open an account
  2. A hospital charging a fee for a private room
  3. A court rejecting evidence obtained by torture
  4. A school refusing admission to a child because of caste Correct answer.

Explanation

Equality before the law prohibits discrimination on grounds such as caste, race, religion or sex. Refusing a service solely because of caste is discriminatory treatment.

Question 10Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Under the fundamental rights chapter, a person arrested must be produced before a magistrate within a specified time. This safeguard protects which right?

  1. Freedom of speech
  2. Right to property
  3. Freedom from arbitrary arrest and detention Correct answer.
  4. Freedom of movement abroad

Explanation

The requirement to bring an arrested person before a magistrate protects personal liberty and prevents unlawful detention. It allows a judicial officer to check whether the arrest is lawful.

Question 11Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Freedom of speech and expression may lawfully be restricted in order to protect which of the following?

  1. The reputation of a rival political candidate
  2. The popularity of a public official
  3. National security and public order Correct answer.
  4. The financial advantage of a media owner

Explanation

Constitutional restrictions on expression must serve legitimate public interests such as national security, public order and the rights of others. Personal or commercial advantage is not a valid ground.

Question 12Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A citizen who is dissatisfied that a public officer has acted unlawfully against him may seek redress by which of the following means?

  1. Appealing to the officer's political party
  2. Filing a fundamental rights application in the Supreme Court Correct answer.
  3. Writing to the national airline
  4. Requesting the army to intervene

Explanation

The Constitution gives the Supreme Court jurisdiction to hear fundamental rights applications against executive or administrative action. This is the formal legal remedy for such grievances.

Question 13Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following is the clearest example of a conflict between a person's right and their responsibility?

  1. A citizen voting in a general election
  2. A student attending a free public school
  3. A resident playing loud music all night, disturbing neighbours Correct answer.
  4. A worker joining a trade union

Explanation

Rights are limited by the equal rights of others, so a person's enjoyment of their property must not unreasonably disturb neighbours. Excessive noise shows how a right can clash with social responsibility.

Question 14Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

In a democracy, which of the following best explains why regular elections are important?

  1. They remove the need for courts
  2. They give permanent power to one party
  3. They guarantee that the economy will grow
  4. They allow citizens to hold the government accountable Correct answer.

Explanation

Elections enable citizens to choose representatives and to remove those who fail to perform, which is the essence of accountability. They do not by themselves guarantee economic outcomes or replace other institutions.

Question 15Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A public officer refuses to accept a bribe and follows official procedures. This conduct chiefly reflects which civic value?

  1. Absenteeism
  2. Integrity Correct answer.
  3. Favouritism
  4. Nepotism

Explanation

Integrity means honesty and adherence to ethical standards in the use of public power. Refusing bribes and following procedure are direct examples of that value.

Question 16Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following best distinguishes a right from a duty?

  1. A right can be ignored, while a duty is optional
  2. A duty is enjoyed only by adults, while a right is only for children
  3. A right is claimed by the holder, while a duty is owed to others Correct answer.
  4. A right is always written in law, while a duty never is

Explanation

A right entitles a person to something they may claim or enjoy, whereas a duty is an obligation owed to other people or the state. Both can be legal or moral in nature.

Question 17Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A local council fails to collect rubbish for several weeks, creating a health hazard. Which action by residents best reflects active citizenship?

  1. Refusing to pay all taxes permanently
  2. Spreading rumours about council officers
  3. Burning rubbish in the street without notice
  4. Making a written representation to the council and following up Correct answer.

Explanation

Active citizenship involves using lawful, constructive channels such as written representations to responsible authorities. This holds officials accountable while respecting the rule of law.

Question 18Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following statements about the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is accurate?

  1. It applies only to citizens of European states
  2. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 Correct answer.
  3. It is a treaty that creates criminal offences
  4. It replaced all national constitutions

Explanation

The Universal Declaration was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948 and sets out common standards of human rights. It is a declaration rather than a criminal code and does not replace national constitutions.

Question 19Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A newspaper publishes a false story damaging a private citizen's reputation. Which limitation on freedom of expression is most relevant here?

  1. Protection of the rights and reputations of others Correct answer.
  2. The need to increase newspaper sales
  3. The wish to favour a rival newspaper
  4. The requirement to publish only government news

Explanation

Freedom of expression carries responsibilities and may be restricted to protect the reputation and rights of others. Deliberately publishing falsehoods about a person can amount to defamation.

Question 20Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following best explains why citizens should pay taxes honestly?

  1. Taxes exist to punish successful businesses
  2. Taxes fund public services and redistribute resources for common welfare Correct answer.
  3. Taxes are a voluntary donation to the government
  4. Taxes are paid only by public officials

Explanation

Taxation is a civic duty because public revenue finances education, health, security and infrastructure that benefit society. Honest payment ensures fair sharing of the cost of public goods.

Question 21Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A person is denied a promotion solely because of her religion. Which constitutional principle is most directly engaged?

  1. Right to form associations
  2. Right to compensation for land
  3. Non-discrimination on grounds of religion Correct answer.
  4. Freedom from forced labour

Explanation

The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds including religion in employment and public dealings. Denying promotion solely on religious grounds is direct discrimination.

Question 22Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A minister orders the detention of a journalist without any legal authority. Which constitutional safeguard is most directly breached?

  1. The rule that taxes must be approved annually
  2. The requirement that executive action be authorised by law Correct answer.
  3. The requirement to register trade unions
  4. The rule on the use of the national flag

Explanation

Article 13 of the Constitution guarantees that no person shall be arrested except according to procedure established by law. Detention ordered without legal authority breaches that guarantee and the rule of law.

Question 23Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which statement best captures the relationship between rights and the common good in a democratic society?

  1. Rights may be exercised freely but are subject to reasonable limits that protect others' rights Correct answer.
  2. Rights are absolute and cannot be limited for any reason
  3. Rights are granted by the government and can be withdrawn at will
  4. Rights belong only to persons who own property

Explanation

Constitutional rights are not absolute; they are subject to restrictions that are reasonable and necessary in a democratic society to protect the rights of others. This balance serves the common good.

Question 24Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A group of residents wants a harmful factory licence cancelled. Which combination of civic actions is most appropriate and lawful?

  1. Blocking the factory gate and damaging its equipment
  2. Submitting objections at the public hearing and seeking judicial review of the decision Correct answer.
  3. Ignoring the hearing and spreading false claims online
  4. Bribing an official to cancel the licence

Explanation

Lawful participation through public hearings and judicial review allows citizens to challenge administrative decisions while respecting the rule of law. This is the recognised route for protecting community interests.

Question 25Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following best explains why an independent judiciary is essential to the protection of citizens' rights?

  1. Judges are appointed to represent political parties
  2. The judiciary makes the annual budget
  3. Courts can pass laws without parliament
  4. Courts can review state action against the law without fear of the executive Correct answer.

Explanation

An independent judiciary can decide cases impartially, including cases where citizens challenge the state. Judicial review of executive action is a core safeguard of constitutional rights.

Question 26Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A citizen wants to challenge a decision of a local authority in court on the ground that it acted beyond the powers given to it by law. Which concept best describes this ground of challenge?

  1. Res judicata
  2. Locus standi
  3. Audi alteram partem
  4. Ultra vires Correct answer.

Explanation

Ultra vires means 'beyond the powers'. When a public authority acts outside the authority granted to it by statute, its decision can be challenged in court on this ground, which is a central principle of administrative law protecting citizens from unlawful official action.

Question 27Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which document sets out the fundamental rights of citizens in Sri Lanka that can be enforced through the Supreme Court?

  1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
  2. The Penal Code
  3. The Municipal Councils Ordinance
  4. The Constitution Correct answer.

Explanation

Fundamental rights in Sri Lanka are guaranteed in the Constitution, and a person whose rights are infringed may petition the Supreme Court for relief. Other statutes deal with specific matters such as local government or criminal offences, and the Universal Declaration is an international instrument rather than domestic law.

Question 28Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A resident discovers that a government officer demanded money to issue a permit that should be issued free of charge. Which of the following actions is most appropriate for the resident to take first?

  1. Publish the officer's name on social media without evidence
  2. Ask a friend to negotiate a lower payment
  3. Pay the money and keep a receipt for later use
  4. Report the demand to the relevant anti-corruption authority Correct answer.

Explanation

Bribery is an offence, and the proper civic response is to report the demand to the body empowered to investigate it, such as the Commission to Investigate Allegations of Bribery or Corruption. This preserves evidence, protects the complainant and supports the rule of law rather than private retaliation or further corruption.

Question 29Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

A community group wants its street repaired and has already written to the municipal council without any response. Which combination of actions best reflects responsible and effective civic participation?

  1. Stop paying local taxes as a protest against the delay
  2. Refuse to vote in the next election until the road is repaired
  3. Organise a peaceful petition and attend a council meeting to raise the matter Correct answer.
  4. Block the road with stones to force officials to act

Explanation

Responsible civic participation uses lawful, peaceful channels such as petitions, public consultation and direct representation to officials. These methods keep pressure on the authority while respecting the rights of others and the legal process.

Question 30Citizenship, rights and responsibilities

Which of the following best describes the role of a citizen in a democratic society?

  1. Exercising rights and fulfilling duties for the common good Correct answer.
  2. Participating in politics only during election campaigns
  3. Leaving all public decisions to elected officials
  4. Obeying the law only when it suits personal interests

Explanation

Democratic citizenship balances rights with responsibilities. A citizen is expected to exercise rights such as voting and expression while also respecting the law, the rights of others and the common good, not merely to pursue private advantage.

Question 31The Constitution and the rule of law

In Sri Lanka, which document is the supreme law of the country, so that any law inconsistent with it is void to the extent of the inconsistency?

  1. The Penal Code
  2. The Official Languages Act
  3. The Constitution Correct answer.
  4. The Standing Orders of Parliament

Explanation

The Constitution is the supreme law of the land, and Article 4 read with the supremacy clause means legislation inconsistent with it is void to the extent of that inconsistency. Ordinary statutes such as the Penal Code derive their validity from the Constitution and cannot override it. This hierarchy is the foundation of constitutionalism and the rule of law.

Question 32The Constitution and the rule of law

Which feature best describes the separation of powers as it operates under a constitution?

  1. All state power is exercised by a single body to avoid conflict
  2. The executive may decide cases in court when judges are unavailable
  3. Legislative, executive and judicial powers are distributed among distinct institutions that check one another Correct answer.
  4. Courts are placed under the direct control of the executive to ensure efficiency

Explanation

Separation of powers means legislative, executive and judicial functions are entrusted to distinct institutions, each able to check the others. This distribution prevents concentration of power and protects liberty. Courts must remain independent of the executive, and the executive cannot assume judicial functions.

Question 33The Constitution and the rule of law

A citizen believes a government officer has acted outside the authority given by law. Which principle is most directly engaged?

  1. The principle of ministerial responsibility
  2. The principle of the rule of law Correct answer.
  3. The principle of parliamentary privilege
  4. The principle of collective responsibility

Explanation

The rule of law requires that public power be exercised only according to law, so an officer acting beyond legal authority is answerable before the courts. Ministerial and collective responsibility are political conventions governing the executive, not grounds for challenging legal authority. Parliamentary privilege protects certain parliamentary proceedings and does not authorise officers to exceed the law.

Question 34The Constitution and the rule of law

What is meant by the term 'ultra vires' in administrative law?

  1. An act done beyond the powers conferred by law Correct answer.
  2. A law that has been repealed by Parliament
  3. A judgment delivered by a bench of three judges
  4. A decision taken by a majority of the cabinet

Explanation

Ultra vires literally means beyond the powers; a public authority acts ultra vires when it exceeds or abuses the authority given to it by statute or the Constitution. Courts can quash such action through judicial review. The term has nothing to do with repeal, cabinet majorities or the size of a judicial bench.

Question 35The Constitution and the rule of law

Which statement best expresses the constitutional principle of judicial independence?

  1. Judges are appointed and removed at the personal discretion of the President alone
  2. Judges may hold office only while the ruling party remains in power
  3. Judges decide cases impartially, free from direction by the executive or legislature Correct answer.
  4. Judges must follow instructions from the Attorney-General in sensitive cases

Explanation

Judicial independence means judges decide disputes impartially, applying law and evidence without direction from the political branches. Security of tenure, adequate remuneration and appointment procedures insulated from politics protect this independence. Control by the executive or by a ruling party would destroy impartial adjudication.

Question 36The Constitution and the rule of law

A person is arrested and detained by police. Which constitutional safeguard is most directly intended to protect the arrested person's liberty?

  1. The right to free education up to a certain level
  2. The right to freedom of movement within the country
  3. The right to form a trade union
  4. The right to be produced before a court within a specified period Correct answer.

Explanation

Constitutions typically require that an arrested person be informed of the grounds of arrest and produced before a court within a stipulated time, allowing a judge to examine the legality of detention. This safeguard operationalises the rule of law against arbitrary detention. Trade union rights, education rights and movement rights are important but do not directly regulate the legality of custody.

Question 37The Constitution and the rule of law

Which of the following best describes a written constitution?

  1. A statute passed annually to authorise government expenditure
  2. A collection of conventions followed by ministers
  3. A single document or set of documents setting out the main rules and principles of government in an authoritative form Correct answer.
  4. A record of judgments delivered by the Supreme Court

Explanation

A written constitution codifies the fundamental rules of the state in an authoritative text that can be amended only by a special procedure. It typically establishes institutions, distributes powers and guarantees rights. Conventions, appropriation laws and law reports are different kinds of legal material.

Question 38The Constitution and the rule of law

Why do constitutions usually provide a special, more demanding procedure for constitutional amendment?

  1. To prevent ordinary legislation from casually altering fundamental rules Correct answer.
  2. To ensure that amendments are drafted only by judges
  3. To make constitutional change impossible in practice
  4. To allow the executive to amend the constitution without parliamentary approval

Explanation

Entrenchment through special amendment procedures protects fundamental rules from being changed by a simple legislative majority. It ensures stability while still permitting deliberate change after wider deliberation. It does not remove the legislature's role or make change impossible.

Question 39The Constitution and the rule of law

A law requires all citizens to obtain a permit before criticising government policy in public. Which constitutional concern does this raise most directly?

  1. It breaches the right to equality before the law
  2. It infringes the right to engage in a lawful occupation
  3. It violates the right to property
  4. It restricts freedom of expression without a lawful justification Correct answer.

Explanation

Prior permission to criticise government policy is a direct restriction on freedom of expression. Such restrictions are permissible only if prescribed by law and demonstrably justified in a free and democratic society. Property, equality and occupation rights may be relevant in other contexts but are not the primary concern here.

Question 40The Constitution and the rule of law

Which body is typically entrusted with interpreting the constitution and determining whether legislation is consistent with it?

  1. The election commission
  2. The cabinet of ministers
  3. The public service commission
  4. The constitutional court or the highest appellate court, as the constitution provides Correct answer.

Explanation

Constitutional interpretation and review of legislation are entrusted to a constitutional court or to the highest appellate court, depending on the constitutional design. This function is judicial and gives effect to the supremacy of the constitution. Cabinets, service commissions and election commissions exercise executive or administrative functions.

Question 41The Constitution and the rule of law

What is the principal purpose of the doctrine of checks and balances?

  1. To enable each branch of government to limit abuses by the others Correct answer.
  2. To ensure that one institution can perform all functions of government
  3. To remove all disagreements between the branches of government
  4. To allow the judiciary to direct the day-to-day work of ministries

Explanation

Checks and balances give each branch means to restrain abuses by the others, for example judicial review of legislation and legislative oversight of the executive. The aim is to prevent tyranny, not to eliminate disagreement or merge functions. Each branch retains its distinct role.

Question 42The Constitution and the rule of law

A minister refuses to answer questions in Parliament about funds spent by his ministry. Which constitutional convention is most directly breached?

  1. Judicial independence
  2. Collective responsibility of the cabinet
  3. The rule of law
  4. Individual ministerial responsibility to Parliament Correct answer.

Explanation

Individual ministerial responsibility requires a minister to answer to Parliament for the conduct of his or her ministry. Refusing to account for spending undermines parliamentary oversight of public funds. Collective responsibility concerns the cabinet's united stance, while judicial independence and the rule of law address courts and legality respectively.

Question 43The Constitution and the rule of law

Which of the following is the clearest example of a constitutional convention rather than a legal rule enforceable in court?

  1. The prohibition on detaining a person without being brought before a court
  2. The requirement that taxes be imposed only by legislation
  3. The practice that the head of state appoints as prime minister the person who commands a majority in Parliament Correct answer.
  4. The requirement that a bill receive the assent of the head of state before becoming law

Explanation

Conventions are unwritten political understandings followed as binding practice but not directly enforced by courts. Appointing the majority leader as prime minister is a classic convention. Assent to bills, production of detainees before a court and taxation by legislation are legal requirements.

Question 44The Constitution and the rule of law

What does the concept of the 'social contract' contribute to constitutional theory?

  1. It holds that only property owners may be citizens
  2. It holds that government authority rests on the consent of the governed and is limited by the purposes for which it is entrusted Correct answer.
  3. It holds that judges create all law through their decisions
  4. It holds that the monarch owns all land and may dispose of it at will

Explanation

Social contract theory explains political authority as arising from the consent of the governed, who entrust power for common security and welfare. This justifies limits on government and the protection of rights. It does not rest on royal ownership, judicial lawmaking alone or property qualifications.

Question 45The Constitution and the rule of law

Which statement correctly describes the relationship between rights and duties of citizens under a constitution?

  1. Duties exist only for public officials
  2. Rights are absolute and never subject to limitation
  3. Rights may be suspended permanently by administrative order
  4. Rights are accompanied by duties, and rights may be restricted by law in the public interest Correct answer.

Explanation

Constitutional rights are generally not absolute; they may be restricted by law where the restriction is justified in a democratic society. Constitutions also recognise duties of citizens, such as respecting the rights of others and obeying the law. Permanent suspension by mere administrative order would undermine the rule of law.

Question 46The Constitution and the rule of law

A court quashes a decision of a licensing authority because the authority failed to hear the applicant before refusing a licence. Which principle of natural justice has been violated?

  1. The rule against bias
  2. The presumption of innocence
  3. The right to be heard (audi alteram partem) Correct answer.
  4. The principle of proportionality

Explanation

Audi alteram partem requires that a person affected by a decision be given a fair opportunity to be heard before it is made. Failing to hear the applicant before refusing a licence breaches this rule. The rule against bias concerns impartiality, while the presumption of innocence belongs to criminal proceedings and proportionality concerns the fit between means and ends.

Question 47The Constitution and the rule of law

Which of the following best explains why an independent judiciary is essential to the rule of law?

  1. It provides an impartial forum where citizens can challenge unlawful acts by the state Correct answer.
  2. It ensures that judges always agree with the government of the day
  3. It allows judges to make policy in place of elected representatives
  4. It removes the need for legislation

Explanation

An independent judiciary provides an impartial forum in which citizens can challenge unlawful state action, making the rule of law real rather than theoretical. Judges apply and interpret law; they do not replace elected policymakers. Agreement with the government of the day is the opposite of independence.

Question 48The Constitution and the rule of law

The principle that 'no one is above the law' means that:

  1. Parliament may disregard the constitution whenever it wishes
  2. Senior officials may act outside the law when acting in the public interest
  3. The head of state is exempt from all legal process
  4. Ministers and officials are subject to the same law as other citizens and must answer for unlawful acts Correct answer.

Explanation

Equality before the law is a core element of the rule of law: public office does not exempt a person from legal accountability. Officials who act unlawfully must answer before the courts like anyone else. Claims of exemption for officials, the head of state or Parliament contradict constitutional supremacy.

Question 49The Constitution and the rule of law

In a unitary constitution, where does ultimate governmental authority lie?

  1. With regional governments that may override the centre
  2. With a confederation of separate states
  3. With local authorities acting entirely independently of the centre
  4. With a single central government, though powers may be delegated to local bodies Correct answer.

Explanation

A unitary constitution concentrates ultimate authority in one central government, which may delegate functions to local authorities under law. Local bodies derive their powers from the centre and cannot override it. Federal and confederal arrangements distribute authority differently.

Question 50The Constitution and the rule of law

Which of the following best illustrates the operation of the doctrine of the separation of powers in practice?

  1. Parliament passes a law, the executive implements it, and the courts decide disputes arising from it Correct answer.
  2. The cabinet drafts, passes and interprets all legislation without judicial involvement
  3. The police decide the guilt of accused persons without involving courts
  4. Judges sit in Parliament and vote on bills while remaining on the bench

Explanation

Separation of powers is seen when legislation, implementation and adjudication are performed by distinct institutions. Parliament legislates, the executive administers and the courts adjudicate disputes. Combining these functions in one body, or letting police determine guilt, breaches the doctrine.