GCE O/L History key terms

Name given to Sri Lanka's earliest known prehistoric people, identified from skeletal remains and stone tools found in caves such as Batadombalena and Fa Hien Lena, dating back tens of thousands of years.

The Middle Stone Age period, characterised by small flaked stone tools and hunting-gathering lifestyles; in Sri Lanka it is associated with cave sites and the Balangoda culture.

Prehistoric grave marked by large stone slabs or chambers, often containing pottery and personal items; such burials appear in Sri Lanka's early Iron Age and in South Indian cultures.

Period following the Stone Age when iron tools and weapons came into use; in Sri Lanka it coincides with early settlement, rice cultivation and the appearance of megalithic burials.

Ancient capital of Sri Lanka's first major kingdom, founded around the 4th century BCE; famous for its stupas, reservoirs and irrigation works, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Artificial reservoir built to store rainwater for paddy cultivation; large irrigation tanks were a defining achievement of Sri Lanka's ancient kingdoms, especially in the dry zone.

Pali-language chronicle composed by monks, recording the history of Sri Lanka from legendary origins through the major kingdoms; a key, though not neutral, historical source.

Military campaigns by the South Indian Chola empire that captured parts of Sri Lanka, notably Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, between the 10th and 11th centuries CE.

Capital of Sri Lanka after Anuradhapura's decline, flourishing in the 11th to 13th centuries under rulers such as Parakramabahu I; known for its irrigation network and Buddhist monuments.

The last independent Sinhalese kingdom, centred on the hill capital of Kandy, which resisted European control until it was annexed by the British in 1815.

Era from 1505 to about 1658 when Portugal controlled coastal trade and territory in Sri Lanka, introducing Christianity and influencing coastal society before losing ground to the Dutch.

Era from about 1658 to 1796 when the Dutch East India Company controlled Sri Lanka's coastal regions, administering law, trade and cinnamon exports from Colombo and Galle.

1815 agreement between Kandyan chiefs and the British that ceded the Kandyan kingdom to Britain, ending Sri Lankan independence and beginning full colonial rule.

Political organisation founded in 1919 that brought together educated elites to demand constitutional reforms and greater representation in the colonial legislature.

British commission of 1927-28 whose recommendations introduced universal adult franchise in Ceylon and created a system of executive committees in the colonial legislature.

British commission of 1944-45 that recommended a new constitution and internal self-government for Ceylon, paving the way for independence in 1948.

Date when Ceylon became a self-governing dominion within the Commonwealth, achieved through constitutional negotiation rather than armed struggle.

Prime Minister of Ceylon from 1956 who introduced Sinhala Only as the official language policy; assassinated in 1959, his legacy shaped later ethnic politics.

1956 law making Sinhala the sole official language of Ceylon, replacing English; it caused deep resentment among Tamil speakers and became a turning point in ethnic relations.

World's first female prime minister, serving Sri Lanka from 1960; she pursued nationalisation and non-aligned policies and faced both economic crises and insurgency.

Tamil political party founded in 1949 that demanded federalism and protection of Tamil language rights; a major voice in post-independence minority politics.

Wave of anti-Tamil riots in July 1983 that killed many civilians and displaced thousands, widely seen as a catalyst for the escalation of Sri Lanka's civil war.

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, an armed separatist group that fought for an independent Tamil state in northern and eastern Sri Lanka until its defeat in 2009.

Truce signed between the Sri Lankan government and the LTTE, brokered by Norway; it temporarily halted fighting but collapsed by 2006-08.

Group of states that avoided alignment with either superpower during the Cold War; Sri Lanka was a founding member and hosted the 1976 summit in Colombo.

One of the world's earliest urban civilizations, flourishing around 2600-1900 BCE in the north-west of South Asia, known for planned cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.

Region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers where early city-states and empires such as Sumer and Babylon developed, often called the cradle of civilization.

Earliest known writing system, using wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets, developed in ancient Mesopotamia for record-keeping and administration.

Vast ancient empire centred on Rome that at its height controlled much of Europe, North Africa and the Near East, spreading Roman law, roads, language and administration.

Medieval social and economic system based on land ownership, in which lords granted land to vassals in return for military service, while peasants worked the land.

European cultural and intellectual movement from roughly the 14th to 17th centuries, reviving classical learning and emphasising humanism, art, science and individual achievement.

Renaissance intellectual outlook that focused on human potential and achievement, studying classical texts in grammar, rhetoric, history and moral philosophy rather than only theology.

16th-century movement challenging the authority and practices of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the rise of Protestant churches and lasting religious and political division in Europe.

German monk whose Ninety-five Theses of 1517 attacked indulgences and sparked the Protestant Reformation, stressing salvation by faith and the authority of scripture.

Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation, including the Council of Trent, reform of the clergy and the founding of the Jesuits to renew and spread Catholicism.

Period from the 15th to 17th centuries when European sailors explored sea routes to Asia, Africa and the Americas, expanding trade, colonisation and global exchange.

Widespread transfer of plants, animals, people and diseases between the Americas and the Old World after 1492, transforming diets, economies and populations on both sides.

Process by which a stronger state establishes control over another territory and its people, often settling colonists and extracting resources, reshaping local societies and economies.

Period of rapid mechanisation and factory growth beginning in 18th-century Britain, transforming production, transport, urban life and social class structures.

Growth in the proportion of people living in towns and cities, often driven by industrial employment and rural-to-urban migration, bringing new social and public health challenges.

Organisation of workers formed to protect wages and working conditions through collective bargaining and industrial action, emerging strongly during industrialisation.

Belief that a people sharing language, culture or history should form an independent nation-state; a powerful force in 19th-century European unification and 20th-century anti-colonial movements.

Principle that peoples have the right to choose their own political status and government, invoked after both world wars to justify independence from colonial or imperial rule.

1919 peace treaty ending World War I, imposing territorial losses, military limits and heavy reparations on Germany; its terms are often linked to later instability and resentment.

International organisation founded after World War I to maintain peace through collective security; it lacked enforcement power and failed to prevent the slide to World War II.

Policy of making concessions to an aggressive power to avoid conflict, associated with Britain and France's response to Nazi expansion in the 1930s before World War II.

Sustained geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies after 1945, fought through ideology, arms races, alliances and proxy conflicts rather than direct war.

Process by which colonies gained political independence from European empires, accelerating after World War II across Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.

Evidence created at the time of the event it describes, such as letters, official records, photographs or artefacts, offering direct but often biased testimony.

Account produced after an event by someone interpreting primary evidence, such as textbooks or later histories; useful for overview but dependent on the sources used.

Slant or partiality in a source caused by the author's purpose, audience or interests, which a historian must identify before judging reliability.

Judgement about how trustworthy a source is, based on its origin, purpose, authorship, corroboration with other evidence and the circumstances of its creation.

Checking one source against another independent source to test whether accounts agree, strengthening confidence in a claim or revealing contradictions.

Ordering of events in time and the study of sequence and causation; essential for explaining change and continuity and for placing events in correct historical context.

The study of how history is written, including changing interpretations, methods and perspectives of historians; helps explain why accounts of the same events differ.