UL Entrance key terms

A conclusion reached from evidence and reasoning rather than from a direct statement. Readers make inferences by combining clues in a text with their own background knowledge, then checking the conclusion against the passage.

The central point a passage is built to communicate, usually stated or strongly implied in the introduction or conclusion. Everything else in the text supports, explains, or illustrates it.

A sentence, usually first in a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's controlling idea. The remaining sentences develop, support, or illustrate that idea with detail and example.

The writer's attitude toward the subject, revealed through word choice, sentence structure, and level of formality. Tone differs from mood, which describes the feeling a text creates in the reader.

The associations and emotional shading a word carries beyond its literal meaning. Two words with similar dictionary meanings can differ sharply in connotation, changing how a sentence is read.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, independent of the feelings or associations it may trigger. It is the neutral core that connotation adds colour to.

The way sentences and paragraphs are linked so a text reads as one continuous whole. Cohesion is achieved through pronouns, repeated key words, and transition signals such as however or therefore.

A connective such as however, therefore, or in addition that signals the logical relationship between ideas. Choosing the wrong transition can reverse or distort the meaning of a sentence.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person. Errors often appear when a phrase separates subject from verb, or with indefinite pronouns such as each and neither.

The clarity with which a pronoun such as it, they, or this can be traced to its intended noun. Ambiguous or missing antecedents make sentences confusing and are common in editing questions.

A group of words containing a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence; a dependent clause cannot and must be attached to a main clause.

A sentence construction in which the subject performs the action, as in the committee approved the plan. Active voice is usually clearer and more direct than passive voice.

A construction in which the subject receives the action, as in the plan was approved. It suits emphasis on the action or an unknown actor but can hide responsibility and weaken clarity.

A comparison of two quantities by division, often written as a to b, a:b, or a fraction. Ratios allow scaling: if the ratio of boys to girls is 3:2, the same relationship holds for any multiple.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal. Proportions are solved by cross-multiplication and are used for scaling recipes, maps, models, and unit conversions.

A number expressed as a fraction of one hundred. To find a percentage of a quantity, convert it to a decimal or fraction and multiply; percentage change compares the change to the original amount.

The difference between a new value and an original value, divided by the original value and expressed as a percentage. A rise from 40 to 50 is a 25 percent increase, not 10 percent.

A rate expressed per single unit of the second quantity, such as cost per item or kilometres per hour. Unit rates make comparisons between different offers or speeds straightforward.

An equation whose variables appear only to the first power and whose graph is a straight line, typically written as y = mx + c. Solving it means isolating the unknown through inverse operations.

The steepness of a line, calculated as the change in the vertical value divided by the change in the horizontal value between two points. It is the m in y = mx + c.

The point where a graph crosses an axis. The y-intercept is the value of y when x equals zero and represents the starting value in many applied linear models.

Two or more equations that must be satisfied by the same values of the variables. They are solved by substitution or elimination, and the solution is the point where their graphs intersect.

A solving method in which one variable is expressed in terms of another and inserted into a second equation. It reduces a system to a single equation in one unknown.

Rewriting an expression as a product of simpler expressions, such as turning x squared minus 9 into (x minus 3)(x plus 3). It is essential for solving quadratic equations by setting factors to zero.

An equation of the form ax squared plus bx plus c equals zero, where a is not zero. It can be solved by factorisation, completing the square, or the quadratic formula, and may have two, one, or no real roots.

The arithmetic average, found by adding all values and dividing by how many there are. The mean is sensitive to extreme values, unlike the median.

The middle value when data are arranged in order; with an even count, it is the average of the two middle values. It resists distortion by outliers.

The value that occurs most often in a data set. A set may have one mode, several modes, or none at all if every value appears equally often.

A measure between zero and one of how likely an event is, calculated for equally likely outcomes as favourable outcomes divided by total outcomes. Probabilities of all possible outcomes sum to one.

A testable, falsifiable proposed explanation for an observation. A good hypothesis predicts a specific outcome that an experiment could confirm or contradict.

The factor a researcher deliberately changes in an experiment to test its effect. It is plotted on the horizontal axis, while the measured response is the dependent variable.

The factor measured or observed in an experiment; it responds to changes in the independent variable. Results are recorded as values of the dependent variable.

A factor held constant across experimental trials so that it cannot explain the observed result. Controlling variables allows a fair test of the independent variable alone.

The process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. It occurs mainly in chloroplasts and underpins most food chains.

The release of energy from glucose inside cells, using oxygen in aerobic respiration and producing carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration releases less energy and forms lactic acid or ethanol.

A sequence showing how energy passes from producers to consumers through feeding. Arrows point in the direction of energy flow, and each level is called a trophic level.

The smallest unit of an element that retains its chemical properties, made of protons and neutrons in a nucleus surrounded by electrons. Atoms combine in fixed ratios to form compounds.

A pure substance made of only one kind of atom, which cannot be broken down chemically into simpler substances. Elements are listed on the periodic table by atomic number.

A substance formed when atoms of two or more elements are chemically bonded in fixed proportions, such as water or carbon dioxide. Its properties differ from those of its constituent elements.