LGCSE Development Studies (0182) key terms

Total value of goods and services a country produces in a year, divided by its population. Used as a rough measure of average income, but it hides inequality and unpaid work.

A composite score from 0 to 1 combining life expectancy, education (mean and expected years of schooling) and income per person. It measures average achievement in three basic dimensions of wellbeing.

A measure that counts how many people are deprived in health, education and living standards at the same time. A household is counted as poor when it is deprived in a weighted share of indicators.

A threshold of income or consumption below which a person is officially classified as poor. National lines differ by country; international lines allow cross-country comparison of extreme poverty.

A condition where income or consumption falls below a fixed minimum needed for basic survival, such as food, shelter and clothing. The standard does not change with the incomes of others.

Being poor compared with the living standards of others in the same society, often defined as income below a set share of the median. A person can be relatively poor while meeting basic needs.

A number between 0 and 1 summarising how unequally income or consumption is distributed. Zero means perfect equality, one means one person receives everything. Higher values indicate greater inequality.

A graph plotting the cumulative share of income received against the cumulative share of the population, from poorest to richest. The further it bows from the diagonal line of equality, the more unequal the distribution.

The uneven spread of earnings and other income across households or individuals in a society. It is described by measures such as the Gini coefficient and can widen even when average income rises.

The process by which groups are pushed to the margins of society and blocked from full participation in work, education, services and decision-making. It concerns access and power, not only income.

The likelihood that a household or person will fall into poverty or suffer serious harm when hit by a shock such as illness, drought or job loss. It depends on exposure and on available coping resources.

Public policies that reduce hardship and risk, including cash transfers, pensions, health insurance and school feeding. They cushion incomes against shocks and can reduce both poverty and vulnerability.

An idea associated with Amartya Sen holding that development should expand what people are genuinely able to do and be, not just raise income. Health, education and freedom matter as ends in themselves.

Development that meets present needs without destroying the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It balances economic growth, social wellbeing and environmental limits rather than trading one off against the others.

Seventeen global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 for achievement by 2030, covering poverty, hunger, health, education, equality, environment and partnerships. Each goal has measurable targets and indicators.

A measurable variable used to stand for something harder to observe directly, such as using school enrolment to represent access to education. Good indicators are clearly defined, comparable and regularly collected.

An adjustment that converts incomes into a common currency using the actual cost of a basket of goods in each country. It allows fairer comparison of living standards where prices differ.

The historical shift from high birth and death rates to low ones as a country develops. Death rates usually fall first, causing rapid population growth before birth rates follow.

A graph showing the number of males and females in each age band of a population. Its shape reveals whether a population is young and growing, stable, or ageing.

The average number of children a woman would have over her lifetime if current age-specific birth rates stayed the same. It is a standard summary of a society's childbearing level.

The number of people of non-working age, children and older persons, compared with the working-age population. A high ratio means each worker supports more dependants through taxes and family income.

The skills, knowledge and health that people carry and that raise their productivity. Investing in education and health is treated as investment in human capital, not merely as consumption spending.

The emigration of highly educated or skilled people from one country to another, often from poorer to richer economies. It can deprive the home country of trained workers it paid to educate.

The movement of people from one place to another to live, either within a country or across borders. Causes include work, conflict, environmental stress and family ties, and the effects fall on both areas.

Money sent home by migrants to family in their place of origin. They are a major income source for many households and can exceed foreign aid and investment inflows in some countries.

The rising share of a population living in towns and cities. It can drive growth and service provision, but when it outpaces housing and jobs it produces slums and informal work.

Economic activity that is not registered, regulated or taxed by the state, such as street trading or unregistered workshops. Workers there usually lack contracts, social protection and secure pay.

A package of policy conditions, typically loans from the IMF or World Bank requiring privatisation, trade liberalisation and cuts in public spending. Critics argue the social costs often fell on the poor.

Investment by a firm based abroad in productive assets in another country, such as building a factory or buying a local company. It brings capital and often technology, but profits may be repatriated.

The growing interconnection of economies and societies through trade, investment, migration, information and culture. It can create jobs and cheaper goods while exposing workers and producers to distant shocks.

The removal or reduction of tariffs, quotas and other barriers to imports and exports. It is argued to raise efficiency and consumer choice, but can expose local producers to competition they cannot survive.

A situation where all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to enough safe and nutritious food for an active life. It requires availability, access, use and stability together.

Farming mainly to feed the farmer's own household, with little output sold. It is common among smallholders and is sensitive to rainfall, pests and soil decline.

A crop grown mainly for sale rather than for the household's own food, such as cotton, coffee or tobacco. It can raise income but may reduce land available for food and expose farmers to price swings.

The rules, formal or customary, that determine who holds rights to use and transfer land. Insecure tenure discourages investment and can leave smallholders easily displaced.

The maximum population or level of use an environment can support over the long term without degrading. Exceeding it leads to resource depletion, pollution and falling yields.

The degradation of dryland soil and vegetation through overgrazing, deforestation, poor irrigation and drought, until land loses productivity. It is largely human-driven and often irreversible within a lifetime.

Adjustments that reduce the harm from climate impacts already occurring or expected, such as drought-resistant crops, early warning systems and flood defences. It differs from mitigation, which tackles the causes.

Actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions or remove them from the atmosphere, such as renewable energy, forest protection and efficient transport. Mitigation addresses the cause of warming rather than its effects.

How public power is exercised, judged by accountability, transparency, rule of law, participation and efficiency. It is treated as a condition for development because it shapes how resources are used.

The misuse of entrusted power for private gain, including bribery, embezzlement and nepotism. It diverts public funds, raises costs for business and undermines trust in institutions.

The space of voluntary organisations and associations between the state and the family: charities, unions, faith groups, community bodies and advocacy groups. It can hold power to account and give excluded groups a voice.

Entitlements held by all people simply because they are human, covering civil, political, economic, social and cultural life. They are set out in international agreements and impose duties on states.

Financial flows to developing countries from official agencies, given mainly to promote welfare and development, with a grant element. It is distinct from private investment and from military aid.

Cancelling or rescheduling what a country owes to creditors so it can spend more on services instead of repayments. It is usually conditional on economic management and poverty-reduction plans.

Selecting a smaller group from a population so that findings can be generalised to the whole. Random selection reduces bias; a sample that is too small or self-selected gives unreliable results.

Correlation means two variables move together; causation means one actually produces change in the other. A statistical association may be caused by a third factor, so causal claims need stronger evidence.