MCAA PPL Theory Exam cheat sheet

VFR minima in Class C-E airspace below 3 050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL: 5 km flight visibility, 1 500 m horizontal and 300 m (1 000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

VFR minimum flight visibility at or above 3 050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL: 8 km, with 1 500 m horizontal and 600 m (1 000 ft) vertical cloud distance.

Class F and G VFR minima at or below 900 m (3 000 ft) AMSL: 5 km visibility, clear of cloud and in sight of the surface; above 900 m: 5 km, 1 500 m horizontal, 300 m vertical.

Aircraft may not fly VFR below 150 m (500 ft) above ground or water except for take-off and landing, or with special permission.

Anti-collision lights and navigation lights required at night; landing lights required for aircraft operating at night under EASA rules.

Aircraft must carry documents: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness (or permit), crew licences, journey log, and insurance evidence.

ICAO Annex 2 right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has right of way; head-on - both turn right.

A controlled flight must obtain ATC clearance before entering controlled airspace; readback of safety-related clearances is mandatory.

Four-stroke cycle order: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust - one power stroke per two crankshaft revolutions.

Detonation is uncontrolled explosive combustion causing high peak pressures and temperatures; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark.

Mixture control: lean for altitude; excessively lean mixture raises CHT and can cause detonation.

Carburettor icing risk is highest at ambient temperatures between -7 °C and +21 °C with high relative humidity; use carb heat to prevent.

Magneto check: max drop typically 150 rpm per magneto, max differential 50–75 rpm; a dead magneto or excessive drop requires investigation.

Alternator failure: ammeter shows discharge, warning light on; battery supplies limited time - reduce electrical load.

Hydraulic system: check fluid level, no leaks; brake failure may follow loss of hydraulic pressure.

Static port blockage: airspeed reads like an altimeter with climb/descent, altimeter freezes, VSI shows zero.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature) in °C, where ISA temp = 15 − 2 × (altitude in thousands of feet).

Take-off distance increases approximately 10 % per 1 000 ft of density altitude and per 10 °C above ISA.

Headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle between runway and wind); crosswind = wind speed × sin(angle).

Maximum crosswind component is specified in the aircraft flight manual - verify before take-off.

Weight and balance: centre of gravity must lie within the forward and aft limits for all phases; aft CG reduces stability.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency (typically 5 %) + alternate + final reserve (30 min for VFR).

Climb gradient % = (altitude gained / horizontal distance) × 100; required gradient depends on obstacle clearance.

Landing distance increases with tailwind, wet/contaminated runway, and higher density altitude.

Hypoxia symptoms: euphoria, impaired judgement, headache, cyanosis; time of useful consciousness at 25 000 ft is about 3–5 minutes.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness, tingling, and muscle spasms; treat by slowing breathing or using a bag.

Spatial disorientation: vestibular system misleads in IMC; trust instruments, not sensations.

Carbon monoxide poisoning from cabin heat: symptoms include headache, drowsiness, cherry-red skin; turn off heat and ventilate.

Alcohol: minimum 8 hours bottle-to-throttle; effects persist with altitude and fatigue.

Fatigue degrades reaction time and decision-making; circadian low points around 03:00–05:00 and 15:00–17:00.

Vision: foveal (central) vision is colour-sensitive but poor at night; use off-centre viewing for night scanning.

Stress: moderate stress improves performance; excessive stress narrows attention and increases error rate.

ISA: sea level 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1 000 ft up to 11 km (tropopause).

QNH set on altimeter gives elevation above mean sea level; QFE gives height above aerodrome.

Pressure decreases about 1 hPa per 8 m near sea level; high-to-low pressure track causes altimeter to over-read.

Cloud types: cumulus (convective, unstable), stratus (stable, layered), cumulonimbus (thunderstorms, severe turbulence, icing).

Icing: most severe in cumuliform clouds between 0 °C and −15 °C; clear ice from large supercooled droplets.

Wind: surface friction causes backing with altitude in the northern hemisphere; wind veers with height in the southern.

Fronts: cold front - rapid passage, squall lines, cumulonimbus; warm front - gradual, stratus, poor visibility.

Thunderstorm hazards: microbursts, hail, lightning, severe turbulence - avoid by at least 10 nm laterally.

True course + wind correction = true heading; true heading ± variation = magnetic heading; magnetic heading ± deviation = compass heading.

Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north; east variation is subtracted from true to get magnetic.

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 minute of longitude = 1 nm × cos(latitude).

Great circle route is the shortest path on a sphere; rhumb line maintains constant bearing.

Dead reckoning: track = heading + wind drift; use E6B or mental triangle to correct.

VOR: radials are magnetic bearings from the station; flying toward the station shows the reciprocal of the selected radial.

GPS: RAIM integrity check required for IFR; position error increases with poor satellite geometry (high HDOP).

Time en route = distance / groundspeed; fuel = time × fuel flow.

Pre-flight: check weather, NOTAMs, aircraft documents, fuel, weight and balance, and emergency equipment.

Emergency: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate - maintain aircraft control before troubleshooting.

Engine failure after take-off: lower the nose, maintain best glide speed, select landing site, attempt restart only if time permits.

Fire in flight: shut off fuel and electrics to affected engine, use extinguisher, plan immediate landing.

Emergency descent: use maximum rate, consider structural speed limits, notify ATC with MAYDAY or PAN PAN.

Radio failure in VFR: continue VFR, land at nearest suitable aerodrome, report to ATC.

Runway incursion prevention: read back hold-short instructions, scan final approach before crossing.

Passenger briefing must cover seat belts, exits, oxygen, and emergency procedures before take-off.

Lift = ½ × ρ × V² × S × CL; lift increases with the square of airspeed.

Induced drag decreases with airspeed; parasite drag increases with the square of airspeed.

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack, not at a specific airspeed; stall speed increases with weight, load factor, and altitude.

Load factor = 1 / cos(bank angle); at 60° bank load factor is 2.

Best glide speed gives maximum lift-to-drag ratio; best climb angle (Vx) gives maximum altitude gain per distance.

Adverse yaw: aileron deflection creates yaw opposite the turn; coordinated with rudder.

P-factor: asymmetric thrust in climb causes yaw toward the down-going blade side.

Ground effect reduces induced drag and increases lift near the surface, causing float on landing.

Distress call: MAYDAY (three times) followed by callsign, position, nature, intentions; urgency call: PAN PAN (three times).

Standard readback: clearances, runway, altimeter setting, hold-short instructions must be read back verbatim.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Numbers: transmit digits individually; 118.7 = "one one eight decimal seven".

Initial call: station called, own callsign, position, altitude, intentions.

Squawk codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference.

Wind reported in degrees magnetic and knots; runway in use stated by ATC.

Position report: callsign, position, time, altitude, next position and ETA.

VFR minima in Class C-E airspace below 3 050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL: 5 km flight visibility, 1 500 m horizontal and 300 m (1 000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

VFR minimum flight visibility at or above 3 050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL: 8 km, with 1 500 m horizontal and 600 m (1 000 ft) vertical cloud distance.

Class F and G VFR minima at or below 900 m (3 000 ft) AMSL: 5 km visibility, clear of cloud and in sight of the surface; above 900 m: 5 km, 1 500 m horizontal, 300 m vertical.

Aircraft may not fly VFR below 150 m (500 ft) above ground or water except for take-off and landing, or with special permission.

Anti-collision lights and navigation lights required at night; landing lights required for aircraft operating at night under EASA rules.

Aircraft must carry documents: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness (or permit), crew licences, journey log, and insurance evidence.

ICAO Annex 2 right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has right of way; head-on - both turn right.

A controlled flight must obtain ATC clearance before entering controlled airspace; readback of safety-related clearances is mandatory.

Four-stroke cycle order: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust - one power stroke per two crankshaft revolutions.

Detonation is uncontrolled explosive combustion causing high peak pressures and temperatures; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark.

Mixture control: lean for altitude; excessively lean mixture raises CHT and can cause detonation.

Carburettor icing risk is highest at ambient temperatures between -7 °C and +21 °C with high relative humidity; use carb heat to prevent.

Magneto check: max drop typically 150 rpm per magneto, max differential 50–75 rpm; a dead magneto or excessive drop requires investigation.

Alternator failure: ammeter shows discharge, warning light on; battery supplies limited time - reduce electrical load.

Hydraulic system: check fluid level, no leaks; brake failure may follow loss of hydraulic pressure.

Static port blockage: airspeed reads like an altimeter with climb/descent, altimeter freezes, VSI shows zero.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature) in °C, where ISA temp = 15 − 2 × (altitude in thousands of feet).

Take-off distance increases approximately 10 % per 1 000 ft of density altitude and per 10 °C above ISA.

Headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle between runway and wind); crosswind = wind speed × sin(angle).

Maximum crosswind component is specified in the aircraft flight manual - verify before take-off.

Weight and balance: centre of gravity must lie within the forward and aft limits for all phases; aft CG reduces stability.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency (typically 5 %) + alternate + final reserve (30 min for VFR).

Climb gradient % = (altitude gained / horizontal distance) × 100; required gradient depends on obstacle clearance.

Landing distance increases with tailwind, wet/contaminated runway, and higher density altitude.

Hypoxia symptoms: euphoria, impaired judgement, headache, cyanosis; time of useful consciousness at 25 000 ft is about 3–5 minutes.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness, tingling, and muscle spasms; treat by slowing breathing or using a bag.

Spatial disorientation: vestibular system misleads in IMC; trust instruments, not sensations.

Carbon monoxide poisoning from cabin heat: symptoms include headache, drowsiness, cherry-red skin; turn off heat and ventilate.

Alcohol: minimum 8 hours bottle-to-throttle; effects persist with altitude and fatigue.

Fatigue degrades reaction time and decision-making; circadian low points around 03:00–05:00 and 15:00–17:00.

Vision: foveal (central) vision is colour-sensitive but poor at night; use off-centre viewing for night scanning.

Stress: moderate stress improves performance; excessive stress narrows attention and increases error rate.

ISA: sea level 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1 000 ft up to 11 km (tropopause).

QNH set on altimeter gives elevation above mean sea level; QFE gives height above aerodrome.

Pressure decreases about 1 hPa per 8 m near sea level; high-to-low pressure track causes altimeter to over-read.

Cloud types: cumulus (convective, unstable), stratus (stable, layered), cumulonimbus (thunderstorms, severe turbulence, icing).

Icing: most severe in cumuliform clouds between 0 °C and −15 °C; clear ice from large supercooled droplets.

Wind: surface friction causes backing with altitude in the northern hemisphere; wind veers with height in the southern.

Fronts: cold front - rapid passage, squall lines, cumulonimbus; warm front - gradual, stratus, poor visibility.

Thunderstorm hazards: microbursts, hail, lightning, severe turbulence - avoid by at least 10 nm laterally.

True course + wind correction = true heading; true heading ± variation = magnetic heading; magnetic heading ± deviation = compass heading.

Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north; east variation is subtracted from true to get magnetic.

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 minute of longitude = 1 nm × cos(latitude).

Great circle route is the shortest path on a sphere; rhumb line maintains constant bearing.

Dead reckoning: track = heading + wind drift; use E6B or mental triangle to correct.

VOR: radials are magnetic bearings from the station; flying toward the station shows the reciprocal of the selected radial.

GPS: RAIM integrity check required for IFR; position error increases with poor satellite geometry (high HDOP).

Time en route = distance / groundspeed; fuel = time × fuel flow.

Pre-flight: check weather, NOTAMs, aircraft documents, fuel, weight and balance, and emergency equipment.

Emergency: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate - maintain aircraft control before troubleshooting.

Engine failure after take-off: lower the nose, maintain best glide speed, select landing site, attempt restart only if time permits.

Fire in flight: shut off fuel and electrics to affected engine, use extinguisher, plan immediate landing.

Emergency descent: use maximum rate, consider structural speed limits, notify ATC with MAYDAY or PAN PAN.

Radio failure in VFR: continue VFR, land at nearest suitable aerodrome, report to ATC.

Runway incursion prevention: read back hold-short instructions, scan final approach before crossing.

Passenger briefing must cover seat belts, exits, oxygen, and emergency procedures before take-off.

Lift = ½ × ρ × V² × S × CL; lift increases with the square of airspeed.

Induced drag decreases with airspeed; parasite drag increases with the square of airspeed.

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack, not at a specific airspeed; stall speed increases with weight, load factor, and altitude.

Load factor = 1 / cos(bank angle); at 60° bank load factor is 2.

Best glide speed gives maximum lift-to-drag ratio; best climb angle (Vx) gives maximum altitude gain per distance.

Adverse yaw: aileron deflection creates yaw opposite the turn; coordinated with rudder.

P-factor: asymmetric thrust in climb causes yaw toward the down-going blade side.

Ground effect reduces induced drag and increases lift near the surface, causing float on landing.

Distress call: MAYDAY (three times) followed by callsign, position, nature, intentions; urgency call: PAN PAN (three times).

Standard readback: clearances, runway, altimeter setting, hold-short instructions must be read back verbatim.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Numbers: transmit digits individually; 118.7 = "one one eight decimal seven".

Initial call: station called, own callsign, position, altitude, intentions.

Squawk codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference.

Wind reported in degrees magnetic and knots; runway in use stated by ATC.

Position report: callsign, position, time, altitude, next position and ETA.