Mongolia Pharmacist Licensing Exam key terms

The fraction of an administered dose of unchanged drug that reaches the systemic circulation. Intravenous dosing defines F = 1; extravascular routes are compared against it using plasma concentration-time data.

Metabolism of an orally absorbed drug in the intestinal wall or liver before it reaches systemic circulation, lowering oral bioavailability. Drugs with strong first-pass loss often need higher oral doses or alternative routes.

The absence of a significant difference in the rate and extent of absorption between two pharmaceutically equivalent products. Regulators usually require the 90% confidence interval of the AUC and Cmax ratio to fall within 80–125%.

A pharmacologically inactive derivative that is converted in the body to the active drug, usually to improve absorption, stability, or targeting. Examples include ester prodrugs hydrolyzed by esterases after oral absorption.

The systematic link between a molecule's chemical structure and its biological effect. Medicinal chemists modify functional groups to tune potency, selectivity, solubility, and metabolic stability during lead optimization.

The minimal set of steric and electronic features a molecule needs to bind a target and produce its effect. It guides scaffold hopping and three-dimensional pharmacophore modeling in drug design.

The property of a molecule that is not superimposable on its mirror image, usually due to a carbon bearing four different groups. Enantiomers can differ markedly in potency, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics.

A 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers. Because the enantiomers may have different activity or toxicity, many modern products are developed as single enantiomers instead.

The negative logarithm of the acid dissociation constant, describing the pH at which a molecule is half ionized. Ionization state controls solubility, membrane permeability, and renal reabsorption of drugs.

A relationship linking pH, pKa, and the ratio of ionized to unionized drug. It predicts how urinary pH manipulation can accelerate or slow elimination of weak acids and bases.

A set of empirical guidelines predicting oral absorption problems: molecular weight above 500, logP above 5, more than 5 hydrogen-bond donors, or more than 10 hydrogen-bond acceptors.

Adjusting and verifying a botanical preparation so that a defined marker or active constituent falls within a specified range. It supports batch-to-batch consistency of extracts used in phytomedicines.

A chemically defined constituent used to identify a crude drug or to quantify an extract, even when it is not the main active substance. It enables quality control and fingerprint comparison.

The study of medicinal substances of natural origin, covering their botanical or biological source, cultivation, collection, identification, constituents, and therapeutic use.

A naturally occurring nitrogen-containing compound, usually basic and often pharmacologically potent. Examples include morphine from opium poppy and atropine from belladonna; many are extracted and purified for medicines.

A chromatographic pattern of spots produced by a plant extract on a coated plate, used as a rapid identity and purity check. Comparison with reference standards detects adulteration and batch variation.

Any inactive ingredient added to a dosage form, such as fillers, binders, disintegrants, lubricants, or preservatives. Excipients affect manufacturability, stability, release, and patient acceptability.

A formulation designed to release drug promptly after administration with no deliberate delay or prolongation. It is the conventional reference against which modified-release products are compared.

A formulation that releases drug gradually over an extended period, reducing dosing frequency and flattening peak-trough fluctuations. It carries risks of dose dumping if the release mechanism fails.

Rapid unintended release of the full drug dose from a modified-release product, causing toxic concentrations. It is a key safety concern when such tablets are split, crushed, or taken with alcohol.

Extemporaneous preparation of a medicine for an individual patient when no suitable commercial product exists. It requires documented formulas, accurate weighing, and records that allow traceability and quality verification.

The set of quality-assurance requirements ensuring that medicines are consistently produced and controlled to defined standards. It covers premises, personnel, documentation, validation, and quality control testing.

The ratio between a toxic dose and an effective dose, indicating the margin of safety. A narrow index, as with digoxin or warfarin, demands careful dosing and therapeutic drug monitoring.

Measuring drug concentrations in blood to individualize dosing, used for drugs with narrow therapeutic indices or unpredictable kinetics. Interpretation requires correct sampling time relative to the last dose.

The study of what the body does to a drug, summarized as absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. These processes determine the concentration-time profile that drives effect and toxicity.

The study of what a drug does to the body, including receptor binding, signal transduction, and the resulting dose-response relationship. It explains potency, efficacy, and mechanisms of antagonism.

A harmful and unintended response to a medicine at normal doses. ADRs are classified by mechanism and predictability and are the main target of spontaneous reporting systems.

The science of detecting, assessing, understanding, and preventing adverse effects or other drug-related problems. Activities include spontaneous reporting, periodic safety reports, and risk management planning.

The process of identifying a possible new causal link between a drug and an adverse event from case reports or database statistics. A signal prompts further evaluation, not automatic regulatory action.

A document describing a medicine's known safety concerns and the measures planned to prevent or minimize them. It includes routine activities plus additional risk-minimization steps such as educational materials.

The regulatory approval that permits a medicine to be sold for specified indications in a country. It follows review of quality, safety, and efficacy data and carries obligations for post-marketing reporting.

A national or WHO list of medicines selected for safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness to meet priority health needs. It guides public procurement, reimbursement, and prescriber training.

Prescribing and dispensing medicines appropriately to the clinical need, at correct doses, for an adequate duration, and at affordable cost. It is promoted through treatment guidelines and prescription audits.

The extent to which a patient takes medicines as agreed with the prescriber. Barriers include complex regimens, side effects, cost, and poor understanding; counseling and simplification improve it.

A structured process of comparing a patient's current medicines with newly prescribed ones at transitions of care, resolving discrepancies. It reduces duplication, omissions, and interactions.

A change in a drug's effect caused by another drug, food, or herbal product. Mechanisms include enzyme induction or inhibition, altered absorption, and additive pharmacodynamic effects.

The analysis of costs and outcomes of pharmaceutical products and services. Common methods include cost-minimization, cost-effectiveness, cost-utility, and cost-benefit analysis to inform formulary decisions.

The temperature-controlled supply chain needed for medicines that require storage at 2–8 °C from manufacture to administration. Breaks in the chain can inactivate vaccines and biological products.

A substance that counteracts the toxic effect of a poison, either by binding it, blocking its receptor, or restoring normal physiology. Examples include naloxone for opioids and N-acetylcysteine for paracetamol overdose.