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MATSEC SEC Ethics study materials
MATSEC SEC Ethics study resources

MATSEC SEC Ethics practice questions

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Question 1Ethics

In ethics, the term 'normative ethics' refers to the branch that:

  1. explains how moral behaviour evolved in early humans
  2. analyses the logical structure of moral language
  3. describes the moral beliefs actually held by a particular society
  4. proposes and justifies standards for how people ought to act Correct answer.

Explanation

Normative ethics is the branch that constructs and defends principles or standards telling us how we ought to act, such as theories of duty, consequences, or virtue. It is distinguished from descriptive ethics, which reports what people actually believe, and from metaethics, which examines the meaning and logic of moral claims.

Question 2Ethics

Which question belongs to metaethics rather than to applied ethics?

  1. Are moral judgements capable of being objectively true? Correct answer.
  2. Should euthanasia be legalised for terminally ill patients?
  3. Is it permissible to eat meat produced in factory farms?
  4. What duties do employers owe their workers?

Explanation

Metaethics examines the nature of morality itself, including whether moral judgements can be true or false and what truth in ethics would mean. Questions about euthanasia, factory farming, and employment duties are first-order moral problems about what to do, which is the territory of applied ethics.

Question 3Ethics

A student claims that an action is right because it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Which ethical theory is the student using?

  1. Virtue ethics
  2. Kantian deontology
  3. Divine command theory
  4. Utilitarianism Correct answer.

Explanation

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that evaluates actions by their outcomes, specifically by the amount of happiness or welfare they produce overall. The formula 'greatest happiness for the greatest number' is the classic utilitarian standard associated with Bentham and Mill.

Question 4Ethics

Kant's categorical imperative requires that we act only on maxims that we could will to become:

  1. a universal law Correct answer.
  2. beneficial to our own long-term interests
  3. approved by the majority of society
  4. consistent with religious tradition

Explanation

The first formulation of the categorical imperative tests a maxim by asking whether it could be willed as a universal law without contradiction. This makes moral requirements unconditional rather than dependent on desires, majorities, or consequences.

Question 5Ethics

In virtue ethics, 'eudaimonia' is best understood as:

  1. obedience to a set of universal rules
  2. the absence of punishment
  3. the maximisation of total pleasure in a society
  4. human flourishing or living well Correct answer.

Explanation

Eudaimonia is the Aristotelian term for flourishing, the well-lived life that is the ultimate goal of human action. Virtues are excellences of character that enable a person to achieve this flourishing, which is richer than mere pleasure or rule-following.

Question 6Ethics

The principle of autonomy in biomedical ethics primarily protects a patient's right to:

  1. make informed decisions about their own care Correct answer.
  2. receive the most expensive available treatment
  3. have decisions made by relatives on their behalf
  4. be treated without being told the diagnosis

Explanation

Autonomy concerns self-governance: patients should be able to make informed, voluntary choices about their own medical care. This grounds practices such as informed consent, where information is disclosed and the patient's decision is respected.

Question 7Ethics

Which statement best captures the 'harm principle' as defended by J. S. Mill?

  1. The state should enforce the moral code held by the majority.
  2. Any conduct that offends public taste may be criminalised.
  3. Individuals may never be restrained, even to stop violence.
  4. Society may restrict a person's liberty only to prevent harm to others. Correct answer.

Explanation

Mill's harm principle holds that the only justified ground for coercing an individual against their will is to prevent harm to others. Self-regarding conduct and mere offence do not, on this view, supply adequate grounds for legal restriction.

Question 8Ethics

A moral theory is described as 'absolutist' when it holds that:

  1. consequences alone determine rightness
  2. moral rules depend entirely on cultural agreement
  3. moral judgements are merely expressions of emotion
  4. some moral prohibitions hold regardless of circumstances Correct answer.

Explanation

Absolutism in ethics maintains that certain moral rules are binding in all circumstances and cannot be overridden by context or consequences. This contrasts with relativism, consequentialism, and emotivism, each of which makes morality depend on something variable.

Question 9Ethics

A nurse refuses to disclose a patient's HIV status to the patient's employer. Which ethical principle most directly supports the nurse's action?

  1. Confidentiality Correct answer.
  2. Paternalism
  3. Justice
  4. Beneficence

Explanation

Confidentiality obliges health professionals to protect information disclosed within the clinical relationship and to share it only with proper justification. Disclosing status to an employer without consent would breach that duty, unless a specific overriding ground applied.

Question 10Ethics

An engineer discovers that a bridge design has a small but real chance of catastrophic failure. A utilitarian analysis would most likely recommend:

  1. following the original contract regardless of risk
  2. keeping the design secret to avoid public panic
  3. deferring the decision to the lowest-paid workers
  4. halting the project until the risk is eliminated Correct answer.

Explanation

Utilitarian reasoning weighs the expected harms and benefits for everyone affected, so a real risk of catastrophic harm outweighs the costs of delay. Concealment or strict contract compliance would expose many people to serious preventable harm.

Question 11Ethics

A doctor considers lying to an insurance company to secure funding for a patient's treatment. A Kantian would object chiefly because:

  1. the lie might be discovered and damage the doctor's reputation
  2. lying treats the insurer as a mere means and cannot be universalised Correct answer.
  3. the treatment might not actually benefit the patient
  4. insurance companies are not moral agents

Explanation

Kantian ethics condemns deception because it manipulates others' rational agency, treating them as means rather than as ends in themselves, and because a maxim of lying cannot be willed as universal law. Reputational risk and uncertain benefit are prudential or consequentialist concerns, not the Kantian ground.

Question 12Ethics

A manager must decide who receives a limited training budget. Applying the principle of justice as fairness, the most defensible approach is to:

  1. give the budget to whoever asks first
  2. reserve it for the manager's closest colleagues
  3. allocate it according to criteria that can be justified to everyone affected Correct answer.
  4. distribute it randomly to avoid making judgements

Explanation

Justice as fairness requires that the distribution of scarce benefits rest on principles that could be justified to all affected parties, especially the least advantaged. First-come allocation, favouritism, and arbitrary randomness fail that test of public justifiability.

Question 13Ethics

A journalist faces pressure to publish a story that would expose a private individual's medical history. Which consideration is most relevant to a consequentialist assessment?

  1. the expected balance of public benefit and harm from publication Correct answer.
  2. whether the individual consented to the disclosure
  3. whether the story follows a common newspaper format
  4. whether the journalist's editor approves

Explanation

Consequentialism evaluates an action by its foreseeable outcomes, so the decisive question is whether the expected public benefit outweighs the privacy harm to the individual. Consent matters morally but is a rights-based consideration, while editorial approval and format are not ethical criteria.

Question 14Ethics

A student argues: 'Torture is wrong in my culture, so it is wrong everywhere.' Which criticism of this reasoning is most accurate?

  1. It relies on empirical evidence that is out of date.
  2. It assumes that cultures never change.
  3. It is a utilitarian argument in disguise.
  4. It confuses a descriptive claim about beliefs with a normative claim about what is right. Correct answer.

Explanation

The inference moves from what people believe (a descriptive premise) to what is morally required (a normative conclusion) without explaining why local belief should bind everyone. That gap between 'is believed' and 'ought to be' is the central problem with simple cultural relativism as a universal justification.

Question 15Ethics

Aristotle's doctrine of the mean holds that a virtue such as courage lies:

  1. entirely in following written rules
  2. at the maximum possible intensity of feeling
  3. midway between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness Correct answer.
  4. in the intention rather than the action

Explanation

For Aristotle, each virtue is a settled disposition to choose the intermediate course between two vices of excess and deficiency, relative to the situation and the agent. Courage, for example, sits between cowardice and recklessness rather than being a fixed rule or mere intention.

Question 16Ethics

In a clinical trial, a researcher wants to test a new drug on prisoners because they are easy to monitor. Which ethical concern is most directly raised?

  1. Whether the researcher has enough assistants
  2. Whether the drug is profitable enough
  3. Whether the trial will be published
  4. Whether the prisoners can give genuinely voluntary consent Correct answer.

Explanation

Prisoners are a vulnerable population whose circumstances may make consent involuntary or coerced, so research ethics requires special safeguards against exploitation. Profitability, publication, and staffing are practical or institutional matters rather than the core ethical issue.

Question 17Ethics

The 'slippery slope' argument against legalising voluntary euthanasia claims that:

  1. euthanasia is always requested for financial reasons
  2. doctors are incapable of moral reasoning
  3. legalisation would increase hospital costs
  4. the first step will lead to abuses that are harder to prevent later Correct answer.

Explanation

A slippery slope argument is a consequentialist warning that permitting a limited practice will erode safeguards and lead to broader, unacceptable practices. Its force depends on evidence about whether such escalation is likely, not on the nature of the first step alone.

Question 18Ethics

Which scenario best illustrates a conflict between the principles of beneficence and respect for autonomy?

  1. A competent patient refuses a treatment that the doctor believes would clearly help them. Correct answer.
  2. A nurse forgets to record a patient's temperature.
  3. A patient asks for a second medical opinion.
  4. A hospital runs out of beds during a flu season.

Explanation

Beneficence directs the doctor to act for the patient's medical good, while autonomy requires respecting a competent patient's informed refusal. When these pull in opposite directions, the ethical question is how to weigh the duty to help against the duty to respect self-determination.

Question 19Ethics

A company plans to dump waste in a river to cut costs. A stakeholder analysis would require the company to consider:

  1. only the company's public image
  2. the interests of everyone affected, including downstream communities Correct answer.
  3. only the interests of shareholders
  4. only the legal penalties involved

Explanation

Stakeholder analysis identifies all parties affected by a decision and weighs their interests, not just those of owners or regulators. Downstream communities bear real harms from pollution, so their interests must enter the moral assessment.

Question 20Ethics

A teacher gives a lower grade to a student's essay because the student holds unpopular political views. Which ethical failing is most clearly involved?

  1. A violation of impartiality and fairness in assessment Correct answer.
  2. A breach of research integrity
  3. A failure of distributive justice in funding
  4. A conflict between beneficence and non-maleficence

Explanation

Assessment should be based on relevant criteria such as argument and evidence, so penalising a student for their political views violates impartiality and equal treatment. The wrong is treating an irrelevant characteristic as grounds for a disadvantageous decision.

Question 21Ethics

A government proposes mandatory organ donation unless people opt out. Which value is most directly promoted by this 'opt-out' policy?

  1. Beneficence through increased organ supply Correct answer.
  2. Retributive justice for past wrongdoing
  3. Paternalism over medical professionals
  4. Respect for individual autonomy through active consent

Explanation

An opt-out system is defended mainly on beneficence grounds: it is expected to increase the supply of organs and thereby save lives. Critics counter that it may weaken active consent, which is why the autonomy objection is raised against it rather than in its favour.

Question 22Ethics

A critic says a moral theory is 'too demanding' because it requires us to sacrifice nearly every personal project for the sake of others. This objection is most often raised against:

  1. virtue ethics
  2. minimalist deontology
  3. act utilitarianism Correct answer.
  4. divine command theory

Explanation

Act utilitarianism, taken strictly, requires each action to maximise overall welfare, which can leave little room for personal commitments and projects. This demandingness objection is a standard critique of impartial maximising consequentialism.

Question 23Ethics

Two theories agree that lying is usually wrong but disagree about why. Theory A says lying is wrong because it undermines trust and produces worse consequences overall. Theory B says lying is wrong because it violates a duty of honesty owed to persons. Which pair of labels correctly describes them?

  1. A is virtue ethics; B is relativist
  2. A is relativist; B is virtue ethics
  3. A is deontological; B is consequentialist
  4. A is consequentialist; B is deontological Correct answer.

Explanation

Theory A justifies the rule by its effects on trust and welfare, which is a consequentialist structure. Theory B justifies it by a duty owed to persons regardless of outcomes, which is deontological, so the labels are the reverse of the first option.

Question 24Ethics

A hospital adopts a triage rule during a pandemic: save the most lives possible with available resources. A critic objects that this ignores the equal worth of every patient. Which response best defends the rule within a rights framework?

  1. A rule can be justified if it treats all patients equally by applying the same life-saving criterion to each. Correct answer.
  2. Doctors should save whoever they personally prefer.
  3. Rights are irrelevant whenever resources are scarce.
  4. Triage rules should be kept secret from the public.

Explanation

A rights-based defence of triage rests on equal treatment: the same relevant criterion is applied to every patient without arbitrary distinctions. Equal worth does not require identical outcomes when resources are limited, but it does require impartial and publicly defensible criteria.

Question 25Ethics

A philosopher argues that 'good' cannot be defined in non-moral terms and that we recognise goodness through a special moral intuition. This position is closest to:

  1. ethical egoism
  2. Moore's intuitionism Correct answer.
  3. ethical naturalism
  4. emotivism

Explanation

G. E. Moore's intuitionism holds that goodness is a simple, indefinable property grasped by intuition, and that defining it in natural terms commits the naturalistic fallacy. Emotivism instead treats moral utterances as expressions of feeling, and naturalism identifies goodness with natural properties.

Question 26Ethics

A student claims that an action is right because it produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number. This student is appealing to which ethical theory?

  1. Virtue ethics
  2. Utilitarianism Correct answer.
  3. Social contract theory
  4. Kantian deontology

Explanation

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that evaluates actions by their outcomes, specifically by the overall happiness or welfare they produce. The formula 'the greatest happiness for the greatest number' is the classic utilitarian standard associated with Bentham and Mill.

Question 27Ethics

The ethical principle of beneficence requires a healthcare professional to:

  1. avoid disclosing confidential patient information
  2. act in ways that promote the patient's well-being Correct answer.
  3. respect the patient's decisions even when they seem unwise
  4. distribute scarce resources equally among all patients

Explanation

Beneficence is the duty to act for the benefit of others, and in healthcare it means promoting the patient's health and welfare. It is often distinguished from non-maleficence, which is the duty to avoid causing harm.

Question 28Ethics

In Kantian ethics, the 'categorical imperative' is best understood as:

  1. a rule that applies only to those who have agreed to follow it
  2. a principle that maximises overall happiness
  3. a hypothetical command that tells us the best means to our ends
  4. a command of reason that binds unconditionally, regardless of desires Correct answer.

Explanation

For Kant, the categorical imperative is a moral law that reason gives to itself and that holds unconditionally, independent of any particular goal or desire. It contrasts with hypothetical imperatives, which prescribe means to optional ends.

Question 29Ethics

A teacher is accused of treating students unequally because she gives extra help only to those who can afford private tutoring. Which ethical principle is most directly violated?

  1. Non-maleficence
  2. Beneficence
  3. Justice Correct answer.
  4. Autonomy

Explanation

Justice concerns fairness and the equal treatment of persons, especially in the distribution of benefits and opportunities. Giving extra help based on ability to pay introduces an unfair advantage that violates this principle.

Question 30Ethics

Which statement best describes the 'naturalistic fallacy' as identified by G. E. Moore?

  1. It is the mistake of defining 'good' in terms of natural properties such as pleasure Correct answer.
  2. It is the mistake of appealing to human nature to explain moral beliefs
  3. It is the mistake of assuming that whatever is natural is morally right
  4. It is the mistake of deriving moral conclusions from factual premises

Explanation

Moore argued that 'good' is a simple, indefinable property, and that any attempt to define it in terms of natural properties, such as 'pleasure' or 'desirable', commits the naturalistic fallacy. The open-question argument is his test: whatever natural property is proposed, it always makes sense to ask whether it is truly good.

Question 31Ethics

A company's code of ethics states that employees must never accept gifts from suppliers. An employee receives a small diary from a supplier at Christmas. A virtue ethicist would advise the employee to ask:

  1. What rule does the code lay down, and does the diary count as a gift under that rule?
  2. What are the likely consequences of accepting or declining the diary for everyone affected?
  3. What would a person of good character do in this situation, and what would this action cultivate in me? Correct answer.
  4. What would most employees in the company do if faced with the same situation?

Explanation

Virtue ethics evaluates actions by asking what a virtuous person would do and how the action shapes the agent's character. It focuses on traits such as honesty, integrity, and temperance rather than on rules or consequences alone.

Question 32Ethics

In environmental ethics, the 'precautionary principle' holds that:

  1. we should always act so as to maximise the total economic value of natural resources
  2. the environment has moral standing only insofar as it benefits human beings
  3. where there is a threat of serious or irreversible harm, lack of full scientific certainty should not be a reason for postponing protective measures Correct answer.
  4. we should never interfere with nature, since all natural processes are inherently good

Explanation

The precautionary principle shifts the burden of proof: when a proposed activity may cause serious or irreversible harm, decision-makers should take protective action even before all the evidence is in. It is a central idea in environmental policy and is distinct from cost-benefit or anthropocentric approaches.

Question 33Ethics

A doctor has a duty of confidentiality, but a patient reveals that he intends to seriously harm his neighbour. The doctor may disclose the information because:

  1. confidentiality is only a matter of professional etiquette and can be ignored at will
  2. the patient's right to autonomy always includes the right to have secrets revealed
  3. doctors are legally required to report all crimes they learn about, however trivial
  4. the duty to protect others from serious harm can override confidentiality in specific circumstances Correct answer.

Explanation

Confidentiality is a strong but not absolute duty. When there is a credible threat of serious harm to an identifiable person, the duty to protect others can justify breaching confidentiality, often through appropriate authorities. This is a classic conflict between confidentiality and the duty to prevent harm.

Question 34Ethics

The 'trolley problem' is used in ethics primarily to:

  1. test intuitions about the difference between killing and letting die Correct answer.
  2. prove that utilitarianism is the correct moral theory
  3. show that consequences never matter in moral judgement
  4. demonstrate that moral dilemmas are merely linguistic confusions

Explanation

The trolley problem is a thought experiment that probes our intuitions about actively causing harm versus allowing harm to occur. It is widely used to explore the tension between consequentialist reasoning and deontological constraints such as the prohibition on killing.

Question 35Ethics

Which of the following best illustrates the ethical concept of 'informed consent'?

  1. A doctor decides what is best for the patient and obtains a signature afterwards
  2. A patient is given full information about a procedure, understands it, and voluntarily agrees to it Correct answer.
  3. A patient is told only what the doctor thinks will not worry them
  4. A patient signs a consent form without reading it because the doctor is trusted

Explanation

Informed consent requires that the patient receive adequate information, understand it, and give voluntary agreement, free from coercion. It is grounded in respect for autonomy and is not satisfied by a mere signature.

Question 36Ethics

In ethical theory, 'moral realism' is the view that:

  1. there are moral facts or truths that are independent of what anyone believes Correct answer.
  2. moral claims are neither true nor false
  3. moral truths are relative to each culture
  4. moral statements merely express the speaker's emotions

Explanation

Moral realism holds that moral statements can be objectively true or false and that their truth is not merely a matter of individual or cultural opinion. It contrasts with expressivism, relativism, and non-cognitivism.

Question 37Ethics

A manager argues that a decision is right because it followed the company's established procedures, even though the procedures led to an unfair outcome for an employee. Which ethical approach is the manager using?

  1. Deontological rule-following Correct answer.
  2. Act utilitarianism
  3. Ethical egoism
  4. Virtue ethics

Explanation

Deontology evaluates actions by their conformity to rules or duties, not solely by their outcomes. The manager's appeal to established procedures as the justification for the decision reflects a rule-based, deontological style of reasoning.

Question 38Ethics

The ethical concept of 'integrity' in professional life is best described as:

  1. the ability to maximise profits while appearing to be ethical
  2. the habit of following orders without questioning them
  3. the consistency between one's stated values and one's actions, especially under pressure Correct answer.
  4. the willingness to change one's principles whenever they become inconvenient

Explanation

Integrity involves wholeness and consistency between professed values and actual conduct, particularly when there is pressure to compromise. It is a character trait central to professional ethics and is closely related to honesty and moral courage.

Question 39Ethics

A journalist receives leaked documents that would expose corruption but would also reveal the private medical details of an innocent person. Which ethical approach would most directly guide the journalist to weigh the public interest against the harm to the individual?

  1. A virtue ethics focus solely on the journalist's own character
  2. An appeal to cultural relativism about privacy
  3. A strict Kantian prohibition on lying in all circumstances
  4. A consequentialist balancing of harms and benefits Correct answer.

Explanation

Consequentialist reasoning weighs the likely benefits of publication, such as exposing corruption, against the harms, such as the invasion of privacy. It provides a framework for balancing public interest against individual harm, which is the central dilemma described.

Question 40Ethics

In biomedical ethics, the principle of non-maleficence is often summarised as:

  1. above all, do no harm Correct answer.
  2. maximise the greatest good for the greatest number
  3. treat others as you would want to be treated
  4. always tell the truth

Explanation

Non-maleficence is the duty to avoid causing harm to others, traditionally summarised as 'above all, do no harm'. It is distinct from beneficence, which is the positive duty to promote well-being.

Question 41Ethics

A research ethics committee rejects a study because participants are not told the true purpose of the experiment, even though they are told they can withdraw at any time. Which ethical requirement is most clearly breached?

  1. Confidentiality
  2. Informed consent Correct answer.
  3. Non-maleficence
  4. Justice in selection of participants

Explanation

Informed consent requires that participants be given the information relevant to their decision, including the nature and purpose of the research. Withholding the true purpose, even with a right to withdraw, undermines the information condition of consent.

Question 42Ethics

The 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls's theory of justice is a device designed to:

  1. ensure that principles of justice are chosen without knowledge of one's own social position Correct answer.
  2. justify existing inequalities as natural and inevitable
  3. maximise total utility by ignoring individual differences
  4. show that moral principles are merely expressions of emotion

Explanation

Rawls asks us to choose principles of justice as if behind a veil of ignorance, not knowing our talents, wealth, or social status. This thought experiment is meant to ensure impartiality, since we would not design rules that unfairly favour a position we might not occupy.

Question 43Ethics

A student says: 'Morality is just whatever society says it is.' Which criticism is most commonly raised against this view?

  1. It relies on the idea that moral truths are objective
  2. It ignores the role of consequences in moral judgement
  3. It makes moral criticism of widely accepted practices, such as slavery, incoherent Correct answer.
  4. It requires too much self-sacrifice from individuals

Explanation

If morality is simply whatever a society accepts, then it becomes impossible to criticise a society's practices as morally wrong, since they would be right by definition. This is a standard objection to simple cultural relativism, as it seems to rule out moral reform and cross-cultural criticism.

Question 44Ethics

In the ethics of artificial intelligence, the 'alignment problem' refers to the challenge of:

  1. ensuring that all countries adopt the same AI regulations
  2. aligning the physical components of a robot so that it does not malfunction
  3. making sure that AI systems are built using the same programming language
  4. ensuring that AI systems pursue goals and values that are genuinely aligned with human intentions and well-being Correct answer.

Explanation

The alignment problem concerns how to specify and ensure that AI systems act in accordance with human values and intentions, especially as systems become more capable. It is a central issue in AI ethics and raises questions about control, transparency, and value specification.

Question 45Ethics

A hospital uses an algorithm to allocate ICU beds. The algorithm was trained on data showing that one ethnic group historically received less intensive care. Which ethical concern is most directly raised?

  1. The principle of autonomy
  2. The doctrine of double effect
  3. Algorithmic bias and injustice in resource allocation Correct answer.
  4. The duty of confidentiality

Explanation

When an algorithm learns from biased historical data, it can reproduce and amplify existing inequalities, raising concerns about justice and fairness. This is a central issue in the ethics of algorithmic decision-making, particularly in healthcare.

Question 46Ethics

Which of the following best captures the ethical concern known as 'speciesism'?

  1. The view that animals should never be used in scientific research
  2. The idea that human beings are the only entities with any moral relevance
  3. Giving less moral consideration to members of other species solely because they are not human Correct answer.
  4. The belief that all species have exactly equal moral status in every respect

Explanation

Speciesism, a term popularised by Peter Singer, refers to a bias in favour of one's own species, analogous to racism or sexism. It involves giving less weight to the interests of non-human animals simply because they belong to a different species.

Question 47Ethics

A philosopher argues that moral judgements are expressions of emotion and therefore cannot be true or false. This position is known as:

  1. Kantianism
  2. Emotivism Correct answer.
  3. Moral realism
  4. Natural law theory

Explanation

Emotivism, associated with A. J. Ayer and C. L. Stevenson, holds that moral statements express attitudes or emotions rather than describing facts, so they are not truth-apt. It is a form of non-cognitivism in metaethics.

Question 48Ethics

A government considers a policy that would require all citizens to carry an identity card linked to a national database. A civil libertarian objects primarily on the grounds that the policy:

  1. violates the doctrine of double effect
  2. fails to maximise overall economic efficiency
  3. is inconsistent with the principle of non-maleficence in medicine
  4. threatens individual privacy and the right to be free from excessive surveillance Correct answer.

Explanation

Civil libertarianism emphasises individual freedoms and limits on state power, especially regarding privacy and surveillance. The objection is that mandatory identity cards and databases create risks of misuse and erode personal privacy.

Question 49Ethics

In business ethics, the 'stakeholder theory' holds that a firm should be managed in the interests of:

  1. its shareholders alone, since they own the company
  2. its senior managers, since they make the decisions
  3. the government, since it regulates the company
  4. all groups and individuals affected by the firm's activities, not only its shareholders Correct answer.

Explanation

Stakeholder theory, associated with R. Edward Freeman, argues that a business has responsibilities to all those affected by its actions, including employees, customers, suppliers, communities, and shareholders. It contrasts with shareholder primacy, which holds that firms should maximise value for owners alone.

Question 50Ethics

A doctor respects a patient's refusal of a life-saving blood transfusion, even though the doctor believes the treatment is in the patient's best interests. Which ethical principle is the doctor prioritising?

  1. Beneficence
  2. Justice
  3. Non-maleficence
  4. Respect for autonomy Correct answer.

Explanation

Respect for autonomy involves honouring a competent patient's informed choices, even when those choices conflict with the clinician's judgement about the patient's best interests. The doctor is prioritising the patient's right to decide over the duty to promote welfare.