I85PREP
⌘ K
MATSEC SEC Geography study materials
MATSEC SEC Geography study resources

MATSEC SEC Geography practice questions

One question at a time. Build your MATSEC SEC Geography understanding.

First 50 of 200 questions. Each one lists the choices, the correct answer, and an explanation. The checker at the top of this page saves progress in this browser when it is available.

Continue in the practice tool above to load more questions, 50 at a time.

Question 1Geography

Which layer of the Earth's atmosphere contains the ozone layer that absorbs most ultraviolet radiation?

  1. Troposphere
  2. Mesosphere
  3. Thermosphere
  4. Stratosphere Correct answer.

Explanation

The ozone layer lies within the stratosphere, roughly 15 to 35 km above the surface, where ozone molecules absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation. Weather and cloud formation occur in the troposphere below it, while the mesosphere and thermosphere lie above.

Question 2Geography

A river flows from its source to its mouth. Which process describes the removal of weathered rock material by running water?

  1. Weathering
  2. Deposition
  3. Erosion Correct answer.
  4. Compaction

Explanation

Erosion is the transport of weathered material by an agent such as water, wind or ice. Weathering breaks rock down in place without moving it, and deposition is the later laying down of transported sediment.

Question 3Geography

Which type of plate boundary is associated with the formation of mid-ocean ridges and sea-floor spreading?

  1. Transform boundary
  2. Convergent boundary
  3. Divergent boundary Correct answer.
  4. Subduction zone

Explanation

At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move apart and magma rises to fill the gap, creating new oceanic crust along mid-ocean ridges. Convergent and transform boundaries involve plates moving together or sliding past each other instead.

Question 4Geography

Which climate type is characterised by hot, wet conditions all year round and supports tropical rainforest?

  1. Equatorial climate Correct answer.
  2. Hot desert climate
  3. Tundra climate
  4. Mediterranean climate

Explanation

The equatorial climate has high temperatures and heavy rainfall throughout the year, which supports dense tropical rainforest. Mediterranean climates have dry summers, tundra climates are cold, and deserts are arid.

Question 5Geography

What is the main reason why population density is usually expressed as persons per square kilometre?

  1. It shows the rate of urbanisation
  2. It allows comparison between areas of different sizes Correct answer.
  3. It records the age structure of a population
  4. It measures the total number of births

Explanation

Density divides population by area, so places of different size can be compared fairly. A large country and a small island can be assessed on equal terms using this ratio rather than raw totals.

Question 6Geography

Which landform is produced by glacial deposition at the furthest point reached by an ice sheet?

  1. Arete
  2. U-shaped valley
  3. Cirque
  4. Terminal moraine Correct answer.

Explanation

A terminal moraine is a ridge of unsorted debris dumped at the maximum extent of a glacier. Cirques and aretes are erosional features, and U-shaped valleys are carved by erosion rather than deposition.

Question 7Geography

Which factor most directly determines the amount of water that infiltrates into soil during a storm?

  1. Soil permeability and vegetation cover Correct answer.
  2. Distance from the sea
  3. Latitude of the site
  4. Prevailing wind direction

Explanation

Infiltration depends on how easily water passes through the soil and on vegetation, which slows runoff and improves structure. Latitude, wind direction and distance from the sea influence climate but not the local soil's capacity to absorb water.

Question 8Geography

A settlement grows at the point where a river can be crossed easily and routes converge. Which site factor best explains its growth?

  1. A sheltered south-facing slope
  2. A reliable source of coal
  3. A high defensive hilltop
  4. A bridging point and route focus Correct answer.

Explanation

Bridging points attract trade and travellers, and converging routes reinforce this advantage, so settlements grow there. Aspect, coal and hilltop defences are separate site factors that do not match the description given.

Question 9Geography

Which statement correctly describes the difference between weather and climate?

  1. Weather is the long-term average, while climate is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere
  2. Weather is measured in millibars, while climate is measured only in degrees Celsius
  3. Weather is short-term atmospheric conditions, while climate is the long-term average pattern Correct answer.
  4. Weather applies only to tropical regions, while climate applies only to temperate regions

Explanation

Weather refers to conditions over hours or days, whereas climate is the average pattern over many years, typically 30 years or more. The distinction is one of timescale, not of region or unit of measurement.

Question 10Geography

Why does a leeward slope of a mountain range often receive less rainfall than the windward slope?

  1. Evaporation is lower on that side of the range
  2. Air rises and cools, increasing condensation
  3. The slope faces the prevailing moist wind
  4. Air descends and warms, reducing relative humidity Correct answer.

Explanation

Moist air rises on the windward side, cools and releases rain; on the leeward side the air descends, warms and its relative humidity falls, producing a rain shadow. The leeward slope faces away from the prevailing moist wind.

Question 11Geography

A country has a birth rate of 40 per 1000, a death rate of 10 per 1000 and net migration of zero. What is its annual natural increase per 1000?

  1. 50 per 1000
  2. 4 per 1000
  3. 30 per 1000 Correct answer.
  4. 10 per 1000

Explanation

Natural increase equals the birth rate minus the death rate, so 40 minus 10 gives 30 per 1000. Net migration is zero, so it does not change the figure.

Question 12Geography

Which process in the water cycle converts water vapour directly into liquid droplets?

  1. Percolation
  2. Condensation Correct answer.
  3. Evaporation
  4. Transpiration

Explanation

Condensation occurs when water vapour cools and changes into liquid droplets, forming clouds and dew. Evaporation and transpiration add vapour to the air, while percolation moves water down through soil and rock.

Question 13Geography

Which characteristic is typical of a youthful stage river valley?

  1. A levee-lined channel near the mouth
  2. A delta built of deposited silt
  3. A wide flat floodplain with meanders
  4. A steep-sided V-shaped valley with rapids Correct answer.

Explanation

In the upper course, the river has a steep gradient and high energy, eroding vertically to cut a narrow V-shaped valley with rapids and waterfalls. Floodplains, meanders, levees and deltas are features of the middle and lower courses.

Question 14Geography

Which type of farming is most likely to be found in a densely populated lowland region with a warm, wet climate and small farms?

  1. Intensive subsistence arable farming Correct answer.
  2. Plantation farming for export
  3. Extensive nomadic herding
  4. Commercial wheat farming on large fields

Explanation

Small farms, dense population and a warm wet climate favour intensive subsistence farming, where labour is concentrated on small plots to maximise output per hectare. Nomadic herding and large commercial farms require extensive land, and plantations are typically export-oriented.

Question 15Geography

Why does a steep slope generally produce a shorter lag time between rainfall and peak river discharge?

  1. Water flows over the surface quickly instead of infiltrating Correct answer.
  2. Vegetation is denser on steep slopes
  3. Rainfall is heavier on steep slopes
  4. Soil on steep slopes is always impermeable

Explanation

On steep slopes, water moves rapidly downhill as surface runoff, so it reaches the channel quickly and the peak discharge follows soon after the rain. This shortens the lag time compared with gentle, well-vegetated slopes.

Question 16Geography

Which feature forms where a river meets the sea and deposits sediment faster than it is removed by tides and currents?

  1. A waterfall
  2. An oxbow lake
  3. A gorge
  4. A delta Correct answer.

Explanation

When a river slows on entering standing water, its load is deposited; if deposition outpaces removal by tides and currents, a delta builds up. Waterfalls and gorges are erosional features, and oxbow lakes form on floodplains.

Question 17Geography

Which combination of factors would most increase the risk of a mass movement such as a landslide on a hillside?

  1. Gentle slope, light rain and thick grass cover
  2. Steep slope, heavy rainfall and removal of vegetation Correct answer.
  3. Gentle slope, dry weather and dense forest
  4. Flat ground, low rainfall and deep roots

Explanation

Mass movement is triggered when gravity acting on a steep slope is combined with added weight and lubrication from heavy rain and reduced binding by plant roots. The other combinations describe stable, well-vegetated conditions.

Question 18Geography

Which statement best explains why coastal erosion is often faster during winter in mid-latitude regions?

  1. Longshore drift reverses direction
  2. Sea level rises permanently each winter
  3. Storms bring higher waves and more energy to the shore Correct answer.
  4. Beach sediment becomes coarser

Explanation

Winter storms generate stronger winds and larger waves, delivering more energy to the coast and accelerating erosion. Sea level does not rise permanently each winter, and drift direction depends on prevailing wave approach rather than season alone.

Question 19Geography

Which process of coastal transport moves sediment along a beach in a zigzag pattern?

  1. Attrition
  2. Hydraulic action
  3. Longshore drift Correct answer.
  4. Salt weathering

Explanation

Longshore drift carries material along the shore as waves approach at an angle and retreat perpendicular to the beach. Salt weathering, hydraulic action and attrition are erosional processes rather than transport.

Question 20Geography

Which explanation best accounts for the high population density of a fertile river valley in a developing country?

  1. The area has no transport routes so people stay
  2. The land is cheap because it cannot be farmed
  3. Productive alluvial soils support intensive farming and settlement Correct answer.
  4. The valley has a harsh climate that attracts migrants

Explanation

Fertile alluvial soils allow high yields from small areas, supporting dense rural populations and the settlements that serve them. Harsh climates and poor transport tend to repel rather than attract people.

Question 21Geography

Which of these is a renewable source of energy used to generate electricity?

  1. Oil
  2. Wind Correct answer.
  3. Natural gas
  4. Coal

Explanation

Wind is replenished naturally and produces no carbon dioxide during generation. Coal, natural gas and oil are fossil fuels that take millions of years to form and are effectively finite.

Question 22Geography

A geographer compares two countries using a population pyramid with a broad base and narrow top against one that is roughly rectangular. What does the broad-based pyramid indicate?

  1. High immigration of elderly people
  2. A population in long-term decline
  3. High birth rates with a young population Correct answer.
  4. Low birth rates with an ageing population

Explanation

A broad base shows a large proportion of children, indicating high birth rates and a youthful population. A rectangular pyramid reflects low and stable birth rates with a larger elderly proportion.

Question 23Geography

Why does the collision of two continental plates produce fold mountains rather than a deep ocean trench?

  1. Continental crust is thin and easily destroyed
  2. Melting at the boundary removes all the rock
  3. Both plates are buoyant and resist subduction, so crust is crumpled and thickened Correct answer.
  4. Both plates are dense and sink rapidly into the mantle

Explanation

Continental crust is relatively light and cannot easily sink, so when two continental plates collide the crust buckles and thickens into fold mountains. Deep trenches form where dense oceanic crust subducts instead.

Question 24Geography

Which sequence correctly describes the development of an oxbow lake?

  1. Meander erodes the outer bank, neck narrows, floods cut through, ends are sealed by deposition Correct answer.
  2. A river deposits sediment at its mouth to form new land
  3. A glacier melts and leaves a ridge of till
  4. A waterfall retreats upstream and leaves a plunge pool

Explanation

Lateral erosion on the outer banks of a meander brings the two sides of the neck closer; during a flood the river cuts across the neck, and deposition seals the abandoned channel to form an oxbow lake. The other options describe unrelated landforms.

Question 25Geography

A drainage basin has been urbanised with impermeable surfaces and drains. Which change to the storm hydrograph is most likely?

  1. Shorter lag time and higher peak discharge Correct answer.
  2. Shorter lag time and lower peak discharge
  3. Longer lag time and higher peak discharge
  4. Longer lag time and lower peak discharge

Explanation

Impermeable surfaces and drains increase rapid surface runoff, so water reaches the channel sooner and in greater volume, producing a shorter lag time and a higher peak. Vegetation and permeable ground, which slow the flow, have been removed.

Question 26Geography

Which type of plate boundary is associated with the formation of a deep ocean trench and a chain of volcanic island arcs?

  1. A convergent boundary where an oceanic plate is subducted Correct answer.
  2. A divergent boundary between two oceanic plates
  3. A convergent boundary between two continental plates
  4. A transform boundary where two plates slide past each other

Explanation

Where a dense oceanic plate meets another plate it is forced downwards into the mantle, producing a trench at the subduction zone and a line of volcanoes above the descending slab. Continental collision instead thickens the crust into fold mountains, and transform boundaries produce faults rather than trenches.

Question 27Geography

Which soil horizon is richest in decomposed organic matter and is usually the darkest layer?

  1. The O horizon of surface litter
  2. The A horizon, or topsoil Correct answer.
  3. The C horizon of weathered parent rock
  4. The B horizon of accumulated minerals

Explanation

The A horizon is the topsoil, where humus from decayed plant and animal remains mixes with mineral particles, giving it a dark colour and high fertility. The O horizon is fresh and partly decayed litter above the mineral soil, while the B and C horizons lie beneath the zone of main biological activity.

Question 28Geography

In the demographic transition model, which stage is characterised by high birth rates, high death rates and a roughly stable, small population?

  1. Stage 1, the high stationary stage Correct answer.
  2. Stage 4, the low stationary stage
  3. Stage 2, the early expanding stage
  4. Stage 3, the late expanding stage

Explanation

Stage 1 describes pre-industrial societies where both birth and death rates are high, so natural increase is close to zero. Once death rates fall through improved medicine and sanitation, the population enters Stage 2 and expands rapidly.

Question 29Geography

Which term describes the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a given population?

  1. The natural increase rate
  2. The crude birth rate
  3. The total fertility rate Correct answer.
  4. The infant mortality rate

Explanation

The total fertility rate sums the age-specific birth rates across a woman's reproductive years, giving the average number of children per woman. The crude birth rate instead expresses births per thousand of the whole population in a year.

Question 30Geography

Which type of weathering is dominant in hot, humid tropical regions where abundant rainfall and high temperatures speed up chemical reactions?

  1. Salt crystallisation in coastal cliffs
  2. Chemical weathering such as hydrolysis of feldspar Correct answer.
  3. Exfoliation caused by daily heating and cooling
  4. Frost shattering of jointed rock

Explanation

High temperatures and plentiful moisture accelerate chemical reactions, so hydrolysis and oxidation break down minerals rapidly and produce deep, leached soils. Frost shattering and salt crystallisation depend on repeated freezing or evaporation cycles typical of drier or colder environments.

Question 31Geography

Which landform is created when a river loses energy as it enters a lake and deposits its load in a fan-shaped body of sediment?

  1. A waterfall
  2. A delta Correct answer.
  3. A meander
  4. A gorge

Explanation

When a river slows on entering standing water, its competence falls and sediment is dropped, building a delta that extends into the lake or sea. Meanders and gorges are erosion-dominated features formed upstream where the river still has energy.

Question 32Geography

Which type of plate margin is most closely associated with the formation of a rift valley such as the East African Rift?

  1. A constructive margin where the crust is pulled apart Correct answer.
  2. A conservative margin where plates slide past each other
  3. A collision margin where two continents meet
  4. A destructive margin where an oceanic plate subducts

Explanation

At a constructive margin, tensional forces stretch and thin the crust until it fractures and blocks subside between parallel normal faults, forming a rift valley. Subduction and collision margins are compressional and produce trenches or fold mountains instead.

Question 33Geography

Which statement correctly describes the relationship between a country's ecological footprint and its biocapacity?

  1. Biocapacity is the total amount of waste a country can export
  2. An ecological deficit exists when the footprint exceeds the available biocapacity Correct answer.
  3. Ecological footprint measures only the land used for housing
  4. An ecological deficit exists when biocapacity exceeds the footprint

Explanation

The ecological footprint converts resource consumption and waste absorption into the area of productive land and water required, while biocapacity is the area actually available. When demand exceeds supply, the country runs an ecological deficit and depends on imports or depletes its own resources.

Question 34Geography

A town lies in a valley that traps cold air at night, while a nearby hilltop is warmer. Which term best describes this local temperature pattern?

  1. A föhn effect
  2. A temperature inversion Correct answer.
  3. A rain shadow
  4. An urban heat island

Explanation

Under calm, clear conditions the ground cools rapidly and the dense cold air drains downslope, settling in the valley beneath a layer of warmer air, which is a temperature inversion. The hilltop remains warmer because it lies above the trapped cold pool.

Question 35Geography

A settlement is sited on a raised terrace above a floodplain near a river crossing. Which combination of site factors does this best illustrate?

  1. Fertile alluvium and a reliable water supply
  2. Defence and dry land with a routeway advantage Correct answer.
  3. Aspect and shelter from prevailing winds
  4. Mineral resources and a coastal harbour

Explanation

A raised terrace gives protection from flooding and easy defence, while the nearby crossing makes the site a natural route node. Fertile alluvium and water supply are advantages of the floodplain itself, which the terrace deliberately avoids.

Question 36Geography

A river's cross-section shows a narrow, deep channel with a smooth bed and banks. Which process best explains this shape?

  1. Dominant vertical erosion by abrasion on a steep gradient Correct answer.
  2. Dominant hydraulic action in a plunge pool beneath a waterfall
  3. Dominant lateral erosion and deposition on the inner bend
  4. Dominant deposition of suspended load as velocity falls

Explanation

A narrow, deep channel with a smooth bed indicates that the river is incising downwards, with abrasion and hydraulic action deepening the channel faster than the banks are widened. Lateral erosion and deposition instead produce broad channels with slip-off slopes and point bars.

Question 37Geography

Two places lie at the same latitude, but one is on a west coast and the other on an east coast of a continent in the mid-latitudes. Which factor best explains their different annual temperature ranges?

  1. Variations in the length of daylight between them
  2. Differences in the angle of incoming solar radiation
  3. Contrasting ocean currents and prevailing winds Correct answer.
  4. Differences in the altitude of the two locations

Explanation

At the same latitude both places receive a similar input of solar radiation, so the contrast comes from advection: warm currents and onshore westerlies raise west-coast temperatures, while cold currents and offshore winds cool east coasts. Ocean currents and wind direction therefore explain the different ranges.

Question 38Geography

A rapidly growing city expands onto surrounding farmland. Which change to the local water cycle is most likely to result?

  1. Increased surface runoff and greater flood risk Correct answer.
  2. Reduced surface runoff and lower flood peaks
  3. Increased evapotranspiration from the built-up area
  4. Increased infiltration and higher groundwater recharge

Explanation

Replacing vegetation and soil with roofs, roads and drains reduces infiltration and evapotranspiration, so a larger share of rainfall becomes overland flow. Runoff reaches streams quickly through drains, raising peak discharge and increasing flood risk.

Question 39Geography

Which method of farming is most likely to be used on steep, easily eroded hillsides in a humid region to reduce soil loss?

  1. Monoculture of row crops planted down the slope
  2. Heavy irrigation of flat floodplain fields
  3. Clearance of all vegetation before planting
  4. Contour ploughing combined with terracing Correct answer.

Explanation

Contour ploughing and terracing follow the slope's contours, shortening the path of overland flow and trapping soil, which greatly reduces erosion on steep land. Planting rows down the slope channels water downhill and accelerates gullying.

Question 40Geography

A country's population pyramid has a narrow base, a broad middle and a growing proportion of elderly people. Which planning need is most directly indicated?

  1. A large expansion of maternity services
  2. Increased provision of care homes and health services for the elderly Correct answer.
  3. A sudden rise in the number of entrants to the labour market
  4. A rapid increase in primary school places

Explanation

A narrow base shows falling birth rates while the broader upper age groups show a rising number of older people, so the main planning pressure is on geriatric health care, pensions and residential care. School and maternity provision would be needed by a pyramid with a wide base.

Question 41Geography

Which combination of conditions would most increase the discharge of a river basin after a period of heavy rain?

  1. Deep sandy soils, flat land and extensive marshland
  2. Permeable rock, gentle slopes and dense woodland
  3. Impermeable clay, steep slopes and sparse vegetation Correct answer.
  4. Thick peat cover, gentle slopes and dense grassland

Explanation

Impermeable clay prevents infiltration, steep slopes speed overland flow and sparse vegetation offers little interception or storage, so water reaches the channel quickly and in large volume. Permeable or well-vegetated basins store water and release it slowly.

Question 42Geography

Which factor best explains why a coastline of hard, resistant rock tends to develop headlands and bays rather than a smooth beach?

  1. Softer rock erodes faster, leaving resistant rock projecting as headlands Correct answer.
  2. Longshore drift deposits sediment only on resistant rock
  3. All rock types along the coast erode at the same rate
  4. Wave energy is always lower in bays than at headlands

Explanation

Differential erosion occurs where bands of rock of differing resistance meet the sea: weak rock is worn back to form bays while resistant rock survives as headlands. Wave refraction then concentrates energy on the headlands, sharpening the contrast.

Question 43Geography

A coastal management scheme uses offshore breakwaters and beach replenishment. Which approach does this best represent?

  1. Hard engineering to prevent erosion and encourage deposition Correct answer.
  2. Managed retreat allowing the coastline to move inland
  3. Soft engineering relying only on vegetation planting
  4. Zoning that prohibits all building near the shore

Explanation

Breakwaters are rigid structures that interrupt wave energy and trap sediment, and beach replenishment adds material directly; both are hard engineering techniques aimed at holding the shoreline. Managed retreat and vegetation planting are soft approaches that work with natural processes.

Question 44Geography

A country has a high proportion of its workforce in primary industry and exports mainly unprocessed crops. Which term best describes its level of economic development?

  1. A service-based, highly developed economy
  2. A predominantly agricultural, less developed economy Correct answer.
  3. A post-industrial economy
  4. A newly industrialised economy

Explanation

A workforce concentrated in primary activities and exports dominated by raw crops indicate an economy at an early stage of development, where agriculture provides most employment and income. Post-industrial and newly industrialised economies are characterised by manufacturing or service employment.

Question 45Geography

Which statement best explains why transhumance involves the seasonal movement of livestock between lowland and highland pastures?

  1. Pastoralists move herds to escape predators in the lowlands
  2. Livestock must migrate to breed in colder highland areas
  3. Farmers move animals to avoid paying taxes on lowland land
  4. Animals need to follow the seasonal availability of grazing at different altitudes Correct answer.

Explanation

In mountainous regions snow covers high pastures in winter while lowlands may be too hot or dry in summer, so herders move animals to wherever grazing is available. The movement follows the seasonal growth of pasture at different altitudes, a form of vertical nomadism.

Question 46Geography

A geographer compares two drainage basins of equal area, one with a circular shape and one elongated. Which statement about storm response is most defensible?

  1. The circular basin will have a longer lag time because water travels further
  2. The circular basin will have a shorter lag time because all points are closer to the outlet Correct answer.
  3. The elongated basin will have a higher peak discharge because rain reaches the outlet at once
  4. Basin shape has no measurable effect on the storm hydrograph

Explanation

In a circular basin, tributaries converge on the outlet from all directions at similar distances, so runoff arrives together and produces a short lag time and a high peak. An elongated basin delivers water from progressively more distant headwaters, spreading the flood peak.

Question 47Geography

Which explanation best accounts for the very high productivity of fishing grounds in areas of coastal upwelling?

  1. Freshwater from rivers dilutes seawater and encourages fish breeding
  2. Strong tides remove all predators from the fishing ground
  3. Cold, nutrient-rich water rises to the surface and supports plankton growth Correct answer.
  4. Warm surface water sinks and carries oxygen to the seabed

Explanation

Upwelling brings cold water from depth to the surface, carrying nitrates and phosphates that fuel blooms of phytoplankton, the base of the food chain, so fish concentrate in these waters. The nutrients, not the temperature alone, explain the high productivity.

Question 48Geography

A map shows a series of V-shaped valley contours crossing a river, with the points of the V directed upstream. Which interpretation is correct?

  1. The contours indicate a plateau with no relief
  2. The V shapes show the river is flowing through a valley that descends downstream Correct answer.
  3. The V points indicate a spur projecting into the valley
  4. The land rises downstream and the river flows uphill

Explanation

Where a contour crosses a valley it bends to form a V whose apex points upstream, because the contour follows the valley sides up the slope. The valley therefore descends in the direction opposite to the V points, showing the river's downhill flow.

Question 49Geography

Which process best explains why a glacier can erode bedrock far more effectively than a river of comparable size?

  1. Meltwater dissolves bedrock chemically at a faster rate
  2. Glacial ice flows faster than river water on steep slopes
  3. The ice carries rock fragments that abrade the bed under great weight Correct answer.
  4. Glaciers generate heat that melts the bedrock directly

Explanation

Ice is rigid enough to hold embedded rock debris, and the sheer weight of the glacier presses this material against the bed, so abrasion and plucking remove large blocks. A river carries mainly loose sediment and cannot grip bedrock in the same way.

Question 50Geography

A government wishes to reduce rural-to-urban migration in a developing country. Which policy is most likely to address a root cause of the movement?

  1. Restricting rural households to a single child
  2. Building taller apartment blocks in the capital city
  3. Investing in rural roads, clinics and agricultural extension services Correct answer.
  4. Increasing rents in urban informal settlements

Explanation

Rural-to-urban migration is largely driven by push factors such as poor services, low farm incomes and isolation, so improving rural infrastructure and agricultural support reduces the incentive to leave. Urban measures such as taller buildings or higher rents do not remove the rural push factors.