MATSEC SEC Greek key terms

The standard model verb meaning 'I loose, untie, set free'. Candidates use it to recognise the six principal parts and to identify present, future, aorist and perfect stems in parsing questions.

The past tense that presents an action as a simple event without marking its duration or completion. It is the commonest narrative tense in Greek prose and is recognised by its augment and secondary endings.

The past tense describing continued, repeated or habitual action in the past. Formed from the present stem with augment and secondary endings, it is often rendered in English with 'was doing' or 'used to do'.

The tense expressing action happening now or continuing. Its endings are primary, and its stem is the base from which the imperfect and (for most verbs) other tense stems are built.

The prefix added to past-tense forms: ἐ- for verbs beginning with a consonant, or lengthening of an initial vowel for verbs beginning with a vowel. Its presence signals a secondary tense.

The stem of a verb to which endings and prefixes are attached. Recognising the present, future, aorist, perfect and passive stems is essential for parsing and for looking words up in a lexicon.

A verbal or nominal ending attached to a stem. Personal endings mark person and number; case endings mark function. Identifying the ending correctly is the first step in parsing any form.

A case of a noun, pronoun or adjective. Greek has nominative, genitive, dative, accusative and vocative; each signals grammatical function such as subject, possession, indirect object or direct object.

The case of the indirect object, also used for means, instrument, manner, time and place. Often translated with 'to', 'for', 'with' or 'by', it is one of the most frequent cases in examination passages.

The case expressing possession, origin, partitive sense or the object of certain verbs and prepositions. Usually rendered in English with 'of' or with a possessive such as 'my'.

The case of the direct object, and the case governed by many prepositions. It also marks extent of space or time and, with certain verbs, the subject of an indirect statement.

The verbal form that names an action without marking person or number, often translated with English 'to'. In Greek it can function as subject, object or complement, and is negated by μή.

A verbal adjective that shares in the features of verb and adjective: it has tense and can take an object, yet it declines like an adjective. It is usually translated with an English participle or a subordinate clause.

A participial phrase in the genitive standing apart from the main clause, often translated 'when...', 'since...' or 'after...'. Its subject appears in the genitive and is usually different from the main verb's subject.

The mood used in subordinate clauses of purpose, condition, fear and indefinite time, and after ἄν. It is recognised by its long thematic vowel and primary endings, and is negated by μή.

The mood of wish and of potential statements, often combined with ἄν. In indirect speech it may stand for a subjunctive or indicative, and in past conditions it marks an unreal hypothesis.

An untranslatable particle that combines with subjunctive, optative or past indicative to express potentiality, condition or past habit. Its presence often changes the mood required in a clause.

A relative pronoun such as ὅς, ἥ, ὅ, introducing a clause that describes a noun. It agrees with its antecedent in gender and number but takes its case from its own clause.

An indeclinable particle or small word such as μέν, δέ, γάρ, οὖν or τε. Particles do not translate word for word but carry the logical links and emphasis of a Greek sentence.

A paired construction contrasting two ideas, roughly 'on the one hand... on the other'. It organises sentences and is often left untranslated or rendered by simple contrast in English.

A postpositive particle giving the reason for what precedes, usually translated 'for' or 'because'. It never stands first in its clause, so candidates must look back to the previous statement.

The two Greek negatives: οὐ negates statements of fact and is used with the indicative, while μή negates wishes, commands, conditions and indefinite clauses. Choosing the correct one is a frequent examination point.

The dialect of Classical Athens and the standard of most examination prose. Its features include ττ for σσ, ρρ for ρσ, and characteristic contractions in nouns and verbs.

The eastern Greek dialect used by Herodotus and early scientists, marked by σσ for Attic ττ and by Ionic forms. Candidates should recognise it when reading set authors in translation or adapted text.

The traditional name of the poet of the Iliad and Odyssey, composed in dactylic hexameter and in a mixed literary dialect. Knowledge of his plots, heroes and formulaic style is expected cultural background.

The dactylic hexameter, the metre of epic poetry: six feet of dactyls or spondees with a fixed cadence. Recognising it helps candidates discuss Homeric and didactic verse.

The Athenian dramatic genre of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, performed at civic festivals. Its conventions include the chorus, masks, messenger speeches and the treatment of myth and moral conflict.

The singing and dancing group in Greek drama whose odes divide the episodes. The chorus comments on the action and its leader often exchanges lines with the actors.

The plot or subject matter of a literary work, or the summary of a drama's action. Questions on background often ask candidates to outline the ὑπόθεσις of a set text.

The fifth-century historian of the Persian Wars, called the 'father of history' by Cicero. His work combines narrative, ethnographic digressions and speeches, and is written in Ionic Greek.

The Athenian historian of the Peloponnesian War, known for his analytical method, speeches and insistence on accuracy. His difficult Attic style is a common source of examination passages.

The Athenian philosopher and pupil of Socrates, author of dialogues such as the Apology and Republic. His prose is a standard model of Attic style and a frequent source of comprehension passages.

The fifth-century Athenian philosopher who wrote nothing himself but appears as the central speaker in Plato's dialogues. His method of questioning and his trial and death are recurring cultural topics.

Excellence or virtue, a key ethical concept in Greek thought, applied to human character, to craft and to heroes. In moral passages it is often contrasted with vice or with mere advantage.

Arrogant overstepping of limits, especially by a powerful person, and a major theme of tragedy and historiography. It is typically followed by divine punishment and is contrasted with moderation.

The Greek city-state, the basic political community of the classical world. The word also covers its citizens and institutions, and it underlies much vocabulary in political and historical passages.

Rule by the people, the constitution of classical Athens in which citizens voted in the assembly and served on juries. It is frequently contrasted with oligarchy and tyranny in set texts.