MTEL ESL (54) cheat sheet

Krashen's input hypothesis holds that acquisition occurs when learners receive comprehensible input slightly beyond current competence (i+1), not when input is simplified to their exact level.

Cummins distinguishes BICS (conversational fluency, typically 1-3 years to develop) from CALP (academic language proficiency, typically 5-7 years), so a student who chats fluently may still lack academic English.

The natural order hypothesis claims grammatical morphemes are acquired in a predictable sequence regardless of the order taught; instruction that contradicts the sequence does not accelerate acquisition.

Affective filter: anxiety, low motivation, and low self-confidence raise the filter and reduce intake; low-stress, high-interest contexts lower it.

The monitor hypothesis limits conscious grammar rules to editing output when the learner has time, focus on form, and knowledge of the rule.

Sheltered instruction (e.g., SIOP) teaches grade-level content with language objectives and scaffolded input rather than simplifying the curriculum itself.

Transitional bilingual programs move students to English-only instruction, usually within 2-3 years, while maintenance/dual-language programs sustain both languages long term.

WIDA and ELD proficiency levels describe what learners can do with language (entering/emerging through reaching/bridging), not mastery of discrete grammar points.

The term ELL/EL describes a student actively developing English; a student who has exited services is monitored (often 2-4 years) and is no longer classified as an ELL.

Under U.S. federal law (Lau v. Nichols, Castañeda v. Pickard, and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act), schools must provide ELLs meaningful access to the curriculum; Castañeda sets the three-part test: research-based program, effective implementation, and evaluation of results.

Family educational rights include interpretation and translation for meaningful parent participation; consent for ELL services is obtained from parents, and parents may decline services without waiving the school's obligation to support the student.

Cultural difference (not deficit) framing: differences in eye contact, wait time, turn-taking, and narrative style reflect cultural norms, not cognitive or language deficits.

Individualism and collectivism, power distance, and high/low-context communication styles are frameworks for interpreting classroom behavior; they describe tendencies, not individuals.

Additive bilingualism maintains the home language and adds English; subtractive bilingualism replaces the home language, which is associated with language loss and lower academic self-concept.

Disproportionality risk: ELLs are both over-referred and under-referred for special education; referral requires evidence of difficulty in the home language and across settings, not just English performance.

Language status and bias: accent, dialect, and code-switching are not errors; AAVE and regional dialects follow systematic rules and should not be treated as disordered English.

The five essential components of reading instruction are phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension; ELLs need explicit instruction in each plus oral language support.

Phonological transfer: learners whose L1 has different phoneme inventories (e.g., /r/ vs. /l/, or /p/ vs. /b/) may perceive and produce English contrasts differently; errors reflect the L1 system, not carelessness.

English orthography is morphophonemic: spelling reflects meaning (sign/signal) as well as sound, so spelling instruction should address morphology, not only phonics.

Morphology: inflectional morphemes (plural -s, past -ed) are acquired early and are regular; derivational morphemes (un-, -ness, -tion) are later and more variable, affecting academic vocabulary growth.

Syntax contrast examples: English requires subject-verb-object order and articles (a/an/the), which many languages lack; adjective order and count/mass noun distinctions are frequent ELL trouble spots.

Vocabulary tiers: Tier 1 everyday words, Tier 2 cross-content academic words (analyze, contrast), Tier 3 domain-specific terms (photosynthesis); Tier 2 words yield the highest instructional payoff for ELLs.

Academic language functions include compare/contrast, cause/effect, sequencing, and persuasion; each has characteristic signal words and sentence frames that support production.

Cognates (e.g., Spanish 'importante' / English 'important') accelerate vocabulary for Romance-language speakers, but false cognates ('embarazada' vs. 'embarrassed') require explicit contrast.

Content and language objectives are paired: content objectives state what students will know or do, language objectives state the reading, writing, speaking, or listening skill used to demonstrate it.

WIDA ACCESS and its state equivalents measure annual English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, and writing; scores determine exit from ELL status and monitor status.

Formative assessment tools for ELLs include sentence frames, oral interviews, and performance tasks; summative standardized tests in English may not validly measure content for students at low proficiency unless accommodations are provided.

Test accommodations include extended time, bilingual glossaries, read-aloud of directions, small-group administration, and translated versions; accommodations must not change what the test measures.

Total Physical Response (TPR) pairs oral commands with physical movement and suits early, low-anxiety vocabulary building; it is not a full literacy program.

Cooperative learning structures (think-pair-share, jigsaw) increase student talk time and lower the affective filter; heterogeneous grouping with assigned roles supports language output.

Professional collaboration: ESL teachers co-plan and co-teach with content teachers; the ESL specialist's role is to build language scaffolds into grade-level content, not to replace content instruction.

Assessment bias: a student's silence during the silent period (often several weeks to months) is developmentally normal and is not evidence of a disability or refusal to learn.