MTLE English as a Second Language (Grades K-12) cheat sheet

Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/ in pat/bat). Allophone: variant pronunciation of a phoneme that does not change meaning.

Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning. Free morphemes stand alone (dog); bound morphemes attach (plural -s). Inflectional morphemes change grammatical form without changing part of speech; derivational morphemes create new words or change part of speech.

Syntax: rules for word order and sentence structure. English basic order is SVO. Questions and passive voice involve movement rules that may differ from L1.

Semantics: literal meaning of words and sentences. Pragmatics: how context and speaker intent shape meaning (e.g., indirect requests, politeness).

Pragmatic transfer: applying L1 sociolinguistic norms in L2 (e.g., directness in requests). Contrastive analysis predicts difficulty; error analysis examines actual learner errors.

Language universals (Chomsky, Greenberg): all languages share certain properties (e.g., nouns and verbs, negation). Markedness: more marked features are harder to acquire.

Phonological awareness: ability to manipulate sounds (rhyme, syllables, phonemes). Phonemic awareness is the most advanced level and predicts early reading success.

Morphological awareness: understanding word parts (roots, prefixes, suffixes) supports vocabulary growth and reading comprehension in later grades.

Register: variation by formality and audience (academic vs. conversational). BICS (social language) and CALP (academic language) differ in cognitive demand and context support.

Krashen's monitor model: acquisition vs. learning; natural order hypothesis; monitor hypothesis; input hypothesis (i+1); affective filter hypothesis. The filter (anxiety, motivation, confidence) can block input.

Cummins' BICS/CALP: BICS = conversational fluency, typically 1–3 years to develop. CALP = academic language proficiency, typically 5–7 years with schooling support.

Interlanguage (Selinker): learner's evolving rule system between L1 and L2. Errors are evidence of rule formation, not failure. Fossilization: persistent non-target forms.

Stages of second language development: pre-production (silent period), early production, speech emergence, intermediate fluency, advanced fluency. Silent period is normal and should not be forced.

Transfer: L1 influence on L2. Positive transfer facilitates; negative transfer (interference) causes errors. Contrastive analysis predicts areas of difficulty.

Affective factors: motivation (integrative vs. instrumental), anxiety, self-confidence, and attitude influence rate of acquisition. Lower affective filter supports intake.

Cognitive factors: aptitude, working memory, age of onset, and metacognitive strategies. BICS may appear fluent while CALP lags, especially in content-area reading and writing.

Comprehensible output (Swain): producing language pushes learners to process syntax and notice gaps. Interaction hypothesis (Long): negotiation of meaning in interaction aids acquisition.

Error types: developmental (overgeneralization, e.g., 'goed'), transfer errors, and overgeneralization. Correction should target meaning and be developmentally appropriate.

WIDA English Language Development Standards: Social and Instructional Language; Language of Language Arts; Mathematics; Science; Social Studies. Can Do descriptors describe what ELLs can do at each proficiency level.

SIOP model components: lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, review/assessment.

Sheltered instruction: teach grade-level content with language supports (visuals, graphic organizers, sentence frames, cooperative learning) so ELLs access curriculum while developing English.

Formative assessment: ongoing checks (exit tickets, observations, quizzes) used to adjust instruction. Summative assessment: end-of-unit measures of learning.

Alternative assessment for ELLs: portfolios, performance tasks, oral interviews, and writing samples. Accommodations may include extended time, bilingual glossary, or simplified language, not reduced content.

Language proficiency levels (e.g., WIDA 1–6): Entering, Emerging, Developing, Expanding, Bridging, Reaching. Instruction and assessment should align to the student's level.

Backward design (Wiggins & McTighe): identify desired results, determine acceptable evidence, plan learning experiences. Language objectives should be explicit and tied to content objectives.

Differentiation: tiered tasks, flexible grouping, scaffolded texts, and multimodal input (visual, auditory, kinesthetic) to match proficiency and learning needs.

Assessment bias: cultural and linguistic load can distort results. Use multiple measures and avoid penalizing ELLs for language errors unrelated to content knowledge.

Lau v. Nichols (1974): U.S. Supreme Court held that providing instruction only in English to students who do not understand English can violate Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; districts must take affirmative steps.

Castañeda v. Pickard (1981): three-prong test for programs: (1) based on sound educational theory, (2) implemented effectively with resources and personnel, (3) evaluated and adjusted for effectiveness.

Plyler v. Doe (1982): states may not deny free public education to undocumented immigrant children. Schools should not require immigration documents for enrollment.

Title III of ESSA: federal funding for English language acquisition programs; requires annual English proficiency assessment and accountability for ELL progress.

Program models: transitional bilingual education, dual-language/immersion, ESL pull-out, push-in, sheltered instruction, newcomer programs. Program choice should reflect student needs and resources.

Culturally responsive teaching (Gay, Ladson-Billings): use students' cultural backgrounds as assets; include diverse perspectives; build on home language and culture.

Cultural awareness: recognize differences in communication styles (direct/indirect), eye contact norms, wait time, and family involvement expectations. Avoid deficit thinking.

Professionalism: collaborate with content teachers, families, and interpreters; maintain confidentiality; advocate for ELLs; engage in ongoing professional development and reflective practice.

Home language support: maintaining L1 supports L2 development and identity. Bilingualism is an asset, not a deficit. Encourage family literacy and bilingual resources.