NCAA Namibia PPL Theory cheat sheet

Namibia's civil aviation is governed by the Civil Aviation Act (Act 6 of 2016) and the Namibian Civil Aviation Regulations (NCARs), issued by the Namibia Civil Aviation Authority (NCAA); the NCARs are structured in Parts (e.g. Part 61 licences, Part 91 general operations) mirroring ICAO Annex structure.

The Chicago Convention (1944) and its Annexes bind Namibia as a contracting state; Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) and Annex 1 (Personnel Licensing) underpin the PPL syllabus, and ICAO standards are implemented through the NCARs.

A Private Pilot Licence (Aeroplane) requires a minimum of 45 hours total flight time under Part 61, including at least 25 hours dual instruction and 10 hours solo, with a specified cross-country component.

PPL privileges: the holder may act as PIC of an aeroplane in non-commercial operations but may not carry passengers for remuneration or hire, and may not act as PIC in commercial air transport.

Class 2 medical certificate is the minimum for PPL exercise of privileges; it must be valid on the day of flight, and the pilot must hold a valid licence, rating, and medical to act as PIC.

A current aeroplane class/type rating and a biennial flight review (or equivalent proficiency check) are required; recency in the preceding 90 days typically requires three take-offs and landings to carry passengers.

Documents to be carried on board: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, journey log, and where applicable the radio station licence and aircraft flight manual.

Rules of the air: VFR minimum flight visibility and cloud clearance depend on airspace class; in controlled airspace VFR typically requires 5 km visibility (8 km above 3 050 m AMSL) and specified distance from cloud.

Aircraft airworthiness is maintained under a continuing airworthiness programme; the Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A) must be in force, and maintenance is certified by an approved person or organisation.

Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust; the crankshaft converts reciprocating motion to rotation, and the camshaft operates valves at half crankshaft speed.

Mixture control: the carburettor meters fuel by venturi suction; leaning is required as altitude increases to maintain the correct fuel/air ratio, and full rich is used at high power for cooling.

Carburettor icing is most likely at ambient temperatures between about -10 °C and +20 °C with high relative humidity; it can occur in clear air and is indicated by a gradual RPM drop, which carburettor heat may initially worsen.

Magnetos provide independent ignition; the engine runs on two magnetos, and the mag check during run-up verifies each circuit; a dead mag or rough running indicates a fault requiring attention before flight.

The electrical system typically comprises a battery, alternator/generator, voltage regulator, and bus; the ammeter/loadmeter indicates charging state, and alternator failure leaves battery-only operation for a limited time.

Pitot-static system: the pitot tube supplies dynamic pressure, the static port supplies static pressure; blockage of the static port causes the ASI to behave like an altimeter and the VSI to freeze.

The altimeter is set to the local QNH to indicate altitude above mean sea level; QFE gives height above the reference datum, and the standard pressure setting 1013.25 hPa is used above the transition altitude.

Flight controls: ailerons control roll, elevators control pitch, rudder controls yaw; the elevator is usually more effective than the rudder in producing pitch change, and trim relieves control forces.

Flaps increase lift and drag and lower stall speed; they permit steeper approach angles and shorter landing rolls, but reduce climb performance when extended.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature for that level); high density altitude reduces engine power, propeller thrust, and lift, increasing take-off and landing distances.

Take-off distance required = ground roll + distance to 50 ft; it increases with mass, altitude, temperature, tailwind, and upslope, and must be compared with the available runway plus clearway/stopway.

Landing distance required increases with mass, altitude, temperature, tailwind, and downslope; the landing distance available must not be less than the required distance.

Climb performance: rate of climb = (excess power)/weight; service ceiling is where maximum rate of climb falls to 100 ft/min, absolute ceiling where it reaches zero.

Mass and balance: the centre of gravity must remain within the forward and aft limits; forward CG increases stability and pitch force, aft CG reduces stability and can cause tail stall or spin recovery difficulty.

Fuel planning: calculate trip fuel, plus reserve (typically 45 minutes for VFR day, or as specified), plus taxi and contingency; verify total usable fuel against planned consumption.

Crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle between wind and runway); headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle); check against the aircraft's demonstrated crosswind limit.

Use the aircraft flight manual (AFM/POH) performance charts, correcting for pressure altitude, temperature, mass, wind, and runway surface; never extrapolate beyond chart limits.

Weight and balance: moment = mass × arm; total moment divided by total mass gives the CG position, which must lie within the envelope for all loading states.

Hypoxia: symptoms include euphoria, impaired judgement, and cyanosis; time of useful consciousness falls rapidly with altitude, and supplemental oxygen is required above specified cabin altitudes.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness and tingling; it can be corrected by controlled breathing, and it may mimic hypoxia, so oxygen and descent are the safe responses in doubt.

Spatial disorientation occurs when visual cues conflict with vestibular (inner ear) inputs; it is most dangerous in IMC and at night, and the remedy is to trust the instruments.

The leans, somatogravic illusion, and Coriolis illusion are vestibular illusions; somatogravic illusion during acceleration can cause a false sensation of pitch-up.

Carbon monoxide poisoning from exhaust leaks causes headache, drowsiness, and confusion; it is odourless and undetectable without a detector, and carburettor heat or cabin heat sources are common origins.

Decompression sickness (the bends) can follow exposure to reduced pressure; flying after diving requires waiting intervals, and symptoms include joint pain and respiratory problems.

Fatigue and circadian rhythm: performance is lowest in the early morning and mid-afternoon; duty and rest requirements exist to limit cumulative fatigue, and fatigue impairs reaction time and judgement.

Stress and workload: high arousal impairs performance (Yerkes-Dodson curve); checklist discipline and prioritisation reduce error, and error management (detect, correct) is central to safety.

Vision: night vision relies on rods and is poor in the fovea; scanning techniques and avoiding bright light preserve dark adaptation, and empty-field myopia affects approach judgement.

Standard atmosphere: sea level pressure 1013.25 hPa, temperature 15 °C, lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1 000 ft (about 2 °C/1 000 ft) in the troposphere.

ISA temperature at a level = 15 °C − 2 °C × (altitude in thousands of feet); deviation from ISA affects altimeter and performance calculations.

Cloud types: cumulus (convective, unstable), stratus (stable, layered), cirrus (high, ice), cumulonimbus (thunderstorm, severe turbulence, icing, hail).

Thunderstorms require moisture, instability, and a lifting trigger; hazards include microbursts, wind shear, hail, lightning, and icing, and they should be avoided by a wide margin.

Icing: clear ice forms in large supercooled droplets and is most dangerous; rime ice forms in small droplets; both reduce lift and increase drag, and carburettor icing can occur without visible airframe ice.

Wind shear and microbursts cause sudden airspeed and vertical-speed changes near the ground; go-around is the safe response to a significant shear encounter on approach.

Fog forms when temperature reaches dewpoint (radiation fog on clear calm nights, advection fog with moist air moving over a cooler surface); visibility below minima prevents VFR flight.

Altimeter setting: QNH gives altitude above MSL, QFE gives height above the aerodrome, and the standard setting 1013.25 hPa is used above the transition altitude; pressure changes with weather systems.

METAR and TAF decode: wind direction/speed/gusts, visibility, weather, cloud amount and base, temperature/dewpoint, QNH; CAVOK means visibility ≥ 10 km, no cloud below 5 000 ft, no significant weather.

Great circle is the shortest path between two points on a sphere; rhumb line is a constant-heading line; charts use projections (Mercator, Lambert conformal conic) that distort scale away from the standard parallel.

True course, magnetic variation, and deviation: magnetic heading = true course − variation (east is least, west is best) + deviation; check with the compass swing card.

Wind triangle: heading and TAS combined with wind velocity give track and groundspeed; drift = angle between heading and track, and the crosswind component determines drift.

1 in 60 rule: a course error of 1° produces about 1 NM offset per 60 NM flown; use it to estimate closing angles and corrections.

Time en route = distance/groundspeed; fuel used = time × hourly consumption; always recompute with actual groundspeed and wind at altitude.

Dead reckoning uses heading, time, and speed from a known position; pilotage uses visual landmarks; combine both and update the log at each checkpoint.

VOR, NDB/ADF, DME, and GNSS are navigation aids; VOR radial indicates bearing from the station, and DME gives slant range, which is greater than ground distance at high altitude.

GNSS accuracy: RAIM and satellite geometry affect integrity; verify position against other sources and be aware of database currency and airspace boundaries.

Magnetic compass errors: variation (geographic), deviation (aircraft), and turning/dip errors; acceleration error occurs on east-west headings in the northern/southern hemisphere.

Pre-flight: check documents, mass and balance, fuel, weather, NOTAMs, and aircraft serviceability; complete a walk-around and confirm the aircraft is within limits before departure.

Passenger briefing must cover seat belts, emergency exits, oxygen use if applicable, and smoking rules; the PIC is responsible for the safety of all on board.

Emergency procedures: engine failure after take-off - maintain control, pitch for best glide, select a landing area, attempt restart per checklist, and brief passengers.

Fire: shut off fuel and electrics as directed, use the extinguisher, and land as soon as practicable; know the location of the extinguisher and fuel shut-off.

Radio failure: squawk 7600, follow the published lost-communication procedure, and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; maintain VFR and avoid controlled airspace unless cleared.

Wake turbulence: generated by wingtip vortices, strongest when heavy, clean, and slow; avoid by spacing, flying above the preceding aircraft's flight path, and landing beyond its touchdown point.

Runway incursion avoidance: read back clearances, confirm hold-short instructions, and maintain situational awareness on the manoeuvring area.

Aircraft parking and mooring: secure controls, chocks, and tie-downs; in Namibia's heat and wind, ensure the aircraft is protected from gusts and direct sun.

Flight planning and ATC: file the flight plan, obtain clearance, and comply with ATC instructions; position reports and ETA updates are required where specified.

Lift = ½ ρ V² S CL; lift increases with air density, speed squared, wing area, and lift coefficient, and must equal weight in steady level flight.

Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow; the critical angle of attack produces the stall, and stall speed increases with mass and load factor.

Load factor n = lift/weight; in a level turn n = 1/cos(bank angle), so a 60° bank gives n = 2 and stall speed increases by √2.

Induced drag decreases with speed, parasite drag increases with speed squared; total drag is minimum at the speed for best lift/drag ratio (best glide).

Stability: positive static stability returns the aircraft to equilibrium; the horizontal stabiliser provides pitch stability, and the CG position affects longitudinal stability.

Turns: rate of turn depends on bank angle and speed; a steeper bank or slower speed increases rate of turn, and the load factor limits manoeuvrability.

Asymmetric thrust (multi-engine): the critical engine is the one whose failure most affects control; VMC is the minimum control speed with one engine inoperative.

Propeller: thrust = mass flow × velocity change; a fixed-pitch propeller's efficiency varies with speed, and a constant-speed propeller maintains RPM via the governor.

High-lift devices and boundary layer: flaps and slats increase CLmax and delay stall; spoilers reduce lift and increase drag for descent and roll control.

Standard call: station called, station calling, position, altitude, and intentions; e.g. "Windhoek Tower, ZS-ABC, Cessna 172, 10 miles south, 5 500 ft, inbound to land."

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Read-back is required for clearances, runway and hold-short instructions, altimeter settings, and frequency changes; use standard phraseology and speak slowly and clearly.

Squawk codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference; these are standard ICAO codes.

Position reporting uses the five-part format: station, aircraft identification, position, time, altitude, and next position/ETA; keep reports concise and accurate.

Emergency call: "MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY" followed by station, aircraft, nature of emergency, position, altitude, and intentions; "PAN PAN" for urgency.

Frequency: use the published aerodrome/approach frequency; monitor 121.5 MHz for emergency and ELT alerts, and know the local ATC frequencies for the route.

Clearance readback: repeat the clearance exactly, including altitude, heading, and frequency; if unsure, ask for clarification rather than guessing.

Transponder and radio checks: request a radio check on the appropriate frequency; use standard terms "readability 5" and do not transmit on guard frequency except for emergencies.