NSSCAS English First Language 8167 key terms

A conclusion a reader draws from clues in the text rather than from a statement made outright. Writers imply meaning through word choice, detail and tone, and candidates must show the evidence behind their reading.

Information stated directly in the words of the text, needing no deduction. Questions on retrieval and summary depend on locating and restating such points accurately and concisely.

The associations and emotional shading a word carries beyond its dictionary sense. Choosing between 'thrifty' and 'stingy' turns on connotation, and analysing it strengthens comment on a writer's effects.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, separate from any emotional colouring. Distinguishing denotation from connotation lets a candidate explain why one word is more telling than another.

The attitude a writer conveys towards subject or reader, felt in phrasing, rhythm and vocabulary. Tone may be ironic, nostalgic, impatient or solemn, and it should be named and supported with quoted evidence.

The atmosphere or emotional feeling a passage creates in the reader, such as unease, warmth or menace. Mood arises from setting, pacing and sensory detail rather than from the writer's stated attitude.

The prevailing emotional quality of a scene, built from description, weather, light and sound. Commenting on atmosphere requires linking specific details to the feeling they produce.

Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating pictures or sensations in the reader's mind. Visual, auditory and tactile images are analysed for what they suggest as well as what they show.

A comparison introduced by 'like' or 'as', as in 'her voice was like gravel'. Analysis should explain the point of resemblance and its effect, not merely label the device.

A comparison in which one thing is described as another without 'like' or 'as', as in 'the city was a furnace'. Extended metaphors sustain a comparison across a passage, shaping its argument or atmosphere.

Giving human qualities to objects, animals or ideas, as when 'the wind complained'. It can create menace, sympathy or intimacy, and its effect depends on the qualities chosen.

A gap between what is said and what is meant, or between expectation and outcome. Verbal irony says the opposite of the intended meaning; situational irony produces an outcome that contradicts what seemed likely.

Bitter or mocking irony intended to wound or belittle. It is a subset of irony, and identifying it helps a candidate describe a narrator's hostile or contemptuous tone.

Deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or comic effect, as in 'I've told you a thousand times'. Its effect may be humour, urgency or contempt, and overstatement should not be read literally.

Presenting something as less important or smaller than it is, often for ironic or restrained effect, as in describing a disaster as 'a slight inconvenience'. It can convey British reserve, horror or dry humour.

A question asked for effect rather than to obtain an answer, pressing the reader to agree or reflect. In argumentative and persuasive writing it can create momentum or imply an obvious conclusion.

Speaking straight to the reader or audience using 'you', or naming them, to create involvement or pressure. It is a common persuasive device in letters, speeches and articles.

The technique of listing three items or ideas, a pattern felt as complete and memorable. Advertisers, speechwriters and essayists use it to give rhythm and emphasis to a point.

Deliberate reuse of a word, phrase or structure to stress a point or build rhythm. Anaphora, the repetition of an opening phrase across successive clauses, is a notable form.

Balancing phrases or clauses in the same grammatical pattern, as in 'to read, to write, to think'. It gives prose clarity and force and is valued in both persuasive and analytical writing.

The level and style of language suited to a situation, ranging from formal to informal, technical to colloquial. Directed writing demands a register that fits the stated audience and purpose.

The intended readers or listeners of a piece, whose knowledge, expectations and likely reactions shape how it is written. Identifying the audience governs vocabulary, tone and how much is explained.

The reason a text is written, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, complain or advise. Naming the purpose precisely guides structure, content selection and the register a candidate adopts.

The conventional shape a piece takes, such as a letter, speech, article, review or report. Each form carries expected features, including salutations, headlines, sign-offs and paragraphing conventions.

The accepted features of a text type, such as a date and salutation in a formal letter or a headline and byline in an article. Directed writing is marked partly on observing these appropriately.

Finding only the information a task requires from a longer passage, ignoring irrelevant material. It demands careful reading of the question so that relevant points are located and unrelated detail excluded.

A brief account of the main points of a text in the candidate's own words, without examples, repetition or personal comment. It should be organised logically and stay within any word limit set.

Expressing the same meaning in different words while keeping the sense intact. In summary tasks, lifting long phrases from the passage is penalised, so rewording in your own vocabulary is essential.

The sentence, usually first in a paragraph, that states the paragraph's main idea. It gives a paragraph focus and helps a reader follow the structure of an argument.

Dividing writing into paragraphs, each developing one idea or stage of an argument. Clear paragraphing signals structure, and in directed writing it separates points such as greeting, complaint and request.

The way sentences and paragraphs are tied together so a text reads as a whole. Connectives, pronoun reference and repeated key words all contribute to cohesion.

Words and phrases that link ideas, such as 'however', 'therefore', 'in addition' and 'by contrast'. Used accurately they clarify relationships; overused or misapplied they confuse the reader.

A word joining words, phrases or clauses, such as 'and', 'but', 'because' and 'although'. Varying conjunctions allows a writer to show cause, contrast and condition precisely.

A sentence containing a main clause and at least one subordinate clause, as in 'Although it rained, the match continued'. Mixing sentence types gives writing rhythm and shows relationships between ideas.

A sentence with one main clause, such as 'The door opened'. Short simple sentences can create tension, emphasis or abruptness, especially after longer, more complex ones.

Varying sentence length and structure to sustain interest and control pace. A run of long sentences may suggest flow, while a sudden short sentence can deliver a shock or a conclusion.

Using marks such as the dash, semicolon, colon or ellipsis deliberately to control pace, emphasis or suspense. Analysis should explain what the mark does to the reader, not just name it.

A punctuation mark introducing an explanation, list or quotation, or marking a sharp contrast between two parts of a sentence. It signals that what follows completes or expands what precedes.

A mark joining two closely related main clauses without a conjunction, or separating items in a complex list. It signals a tighter link than a full stop but a looser one than a comma.

The deliberate selection of vocabulary to create precision, tone and effect. Analysis should quote the chosen word and explain what it suggests that an alternative would not.