NSSCO Geography 6137 key terms

The theory that Earth's outer shell is broken into large rigid slabs that move slowly over the softer mantle, causing earthquakes, volcanoes, and the building of mountains where they meet or separate.

A zone where two tectonic plates move towards each other, producing compression, folding, earthquakes, and often volcanic activity as one plate is forced beneath the other.

A zone where two plates move apart, allowing magma to rise and form new crust; on land it creates rift valleys, and on the ocean floor it builds mid-ocean ridges.

The process in which a denser oceanic plate sinks beneath a lighter continental or oceanic plate at a convergent boundary, generating deep trenches, earthquakes, and volcanic arcs.

A long, steep-sided lowland formed where the crust is pulled apart and a block of land drops between parallel faults, as in the East African Rift system.

A fracture in rock along which movement has occurred, often the source of earthquakes when accumulated stress is suddenly released and the two sides slip past each other.

A mountain range formed when layered rocks are compressed and buckle into upfolds and downfolds, typically at a convergent plate boundary, for example the Cape Fold Mountains.

Rock formed when molten material cools and solidifies; it is intrusive if it cools slowly underground with large crystals, or extrusive if it cools quickly at the surface.

Rock made from layers of compacted and cemented sediment, or from the remains of living things, which often contains fossils and is usually softer and more porous than igneous rock.

Rock that has been changed by intense heat and pressure deep in the crust, often becoming harder and more crystalline, such as limestone turning into marble.

The breakdown of rocks in place by physical, chemical, or biological processes, producing loose material without moving it away from the original site.

The wearing away and removal of rock or soil by moving agents such as water, wind, or ice, which then transport the loosened material to a new location.

The laying down of eroded material when a transporting agent loses energy, building features such as floodplains, deltas, sand dunes, and moraines.

The whole area of land drained by a river and its tributaries, bounded by a watershed, with inputs of precipitation and outputs through the river mouth and evaporation.

The boundary of high ground that separates one drainage basin from another, so that rainfall on either side flows into different river systems.

The average pattern of weather conditions, including temperature and rainfall, experienced in a place over a long period, usually thirty years or more.

The short-term state of the atmosphere at a particular place, described by temperature, humidity, wind, cloud, and rainfall at a given moment or day.

A very dry climate with low and unreliable rainfall and high evaporation, typical of deserts and semi-deserts such as the Namib and Kalahari regions.

A long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns, largely driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases, causing warming, shifting rainfall, and more extreme weather events.

A community of living organisms interacting with one another and with their non-living surroundings, such as soil, water, and air, within a defined area.

A large natural region with a characteristic climate and the plant and animal communities adapted to it, such as savanna, desert, or tropical rainforest.

The variety of living things within a place, measured as the number of species and the genetic and habitat differences among them; high biodiversity usually means a more resilient ecosystem.

The spread of desert-like conditions into formerly productive land, caused by drought, overgrazing, deforestation, and poor soil management, reducing its ability to support farming.

The number of live births per thousand people in a population in a given year, used with death rate to describe how quickly a population is growing naturally.

The number of deaths per thousand people in a population in a given year, which tends to fall as healthcare, sanitation, and food supply improve.

A graph showing the age and sex structure of a population, with bars for each age group, revealing whether a country has a young, growing or an ageing population.

The movement of people from one place to another to live, either within a country or across borders, driven by push factors such as drought and pull factors such as jobs.

The growing share of a population living in towns and cities, caused by rural-to-urban migration and natural growth, which brings both opportunities and problems such as informal housing.

The average number of people living in each square kilometre of an area, calculated by dividing total population by total area, showing how crowded a place is.

A place where people live, ranging from a single farm to a village, town, or city, whose site and growth depend on water, fertile land, transport, and economic opportunity.

Work that directly extracts or harvests natural resources from the environment, such as farming, fishing, forestry, and mining, often forming a large share of developing economies.

Work that processes or manufactures raw materials into finished or semi-finished goods, such as food canning, textile production, or metal smelting in factories.

Work that provides services rather than goods, including retail, transport, tourism, banking, education, and healthcare, which typically grows as an economy develops.

The total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year, often expressed per person to compare living standards between countries.

A measure combining life expectancy, education, and income per person into one score from zero to one, used to compare development levels between countries.

The process of improving people's quality of life through better income, health, education, and opportunities, not simply through economic growth alone.

A natural resource that is naturally replaced or replenished within a human lifetime, such as sunlight, wind, running water, or timber from managed forests.

A resource formed over millions of years that is used up faster than it can be replaced, such as coal, oil, natural gas, or mineral ores.

Meeting the needs of people today without reducing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, balancing economic growth, social welfare, and environmental protection.

The careful management and protection of natural resources and ecosystems so that they are not wasted or destroyed, including protected areas and limits on hunting or logging.

A formal study carried out before a major project to predict its likely effects on air, water, land, wildlife, and people, and to propose ways of reducing harm.

The removal of the fertile top layer of soil by wind or water, often worsened by overgrazing, deforestation, and poor farming methods, reducing crop yields.

The relationship between distance on a map and the real distance on the ground, shown as a ratio, a word statement, or a line scale used to measure distances.

A line on a map joining points of equal height above sea level, whose spacing shows the steepness of the land and whose pattern reveals valleys, ridges, and hills.

A set of numbers that locates a place on a map using the numbered vertical and horizontal grid lines, given as eastings before northings.

First-hand investigation carried out outside the classroom, involving planning, collecting data such as measurements, counts, or questionnaires, and then presenting and analysing the results.

Collecting data from a chosen part of a larger area or group rather than measuring everything, using methods such as random, systematic, or stratified sampling to reduce bias.

The basic facilities and systems a country needs to function, such as roads, railways, power supplies, water pipes, schools, and hospitals, which support economic activity.