NCAA PPL Navigation cheat sheet

1 nautical mile (NM) = 6,076.1 ft = 1.852 km; 1 NM equals one minute of latitude, and 1 knot = 1 NM per hour.

Statute mile to NM: multiply by 0.87; NM to statute mile: multiply by 1.15. Fuel burn per NM is roughly 15% higher than per statute mile.

True course (TC) ± wind correction = true heading (TH); TH ± variation = magnetic heading (MH); MH ± deviation = compass heading (CH). East is least, west is best when applying variation and deviation.

Variation is the angular difference between true and magnetic north at a location (shown on isogonic lines); deviation is the aircraft-specific compass error read from the compass correction card.

Time en route = distance ÷ groundspeed. Fuel required = hourly fuel burn × time en route, plus a reserve of 30 min day VFR or 45 min night VFR.

Groundspeed from wind: GS = TAS ± headwind/tailwind component; the wind correction angle satisfies sin(WCA) = (wind speed ÷ TAS) × sin(wind angle off course).

Sectional chart scale is 1:500,000 (about 8 statute miles per inch); terminal area charts are 1:250,000. Latitude/longitude tick marks appear along chart edges for plotting.

Pilotage is navigation by reference to visible landmarks; dead reckoning is calculating position from known heading, time, and speed. Use both with checkpoints spaced about 10-20 NM apart.

VOR radials are magnetic bearings FROM the station; to fly TO a station on a given radial, set the OBS to the radial and fly the reciprocal heading with a TO indication.

CDI deflection is 2 degrees per dot on a standard VOR; full-scale deflection means the aircraft is at least 10 degrees off the selected course.

GPS waypoint navigation: fly the desired track shown by the course deviation indicator; the moving map and distance-to-waypoint readout replace radial tracking but do not replace chart reading.

Magnetic compass errors: variation, deviation, and turning (northerly/southerly) and acceleration (ANDS - accelerate north, decelerate south) errors; compass is most reliable in straight, level, unaccelerated flight.

Altimeter setting: flying from high to low pressure or high to low temperature without adjusting the altimeter causes the true altitude to be lower than indicated - a hazard for terrain clearance.

Wind triangle: wind direction is reported as the direction FROM which it blows; drift correction is applied into the wind to maintain the desired track.

Time-fuel-distance: use a flight computer or E6B to solve for groundspeed, fuel burn, and time; always compute fuel to the destination plus reserve before departure.

Checkpoint timing: record ETA at each checkpoint; an early or late arrival indicates groundspeed error requiring a heading or power correction to hold the planned track.

Airport traffic pattern legs in order: upwind, crosswind, downwind, base, final; pattern altitude is typically 1,000 ft AGL and pattern direction is shown on the chart supplement or ATIS.

Class B airspace requires an explicit clearance; Class C requires two-way radio and a transponder with Mode C; Class D requires two-way radio contact within its lateral limits.

Class E airspace floor is shown by magenta (700 ft AGL) or blue (1,200 ft AGL) shaded edges on sectionals; Class G is uncontrolled and its ceiling is the base of overlying Class E.

Special use airspace: prohibited areas (no flight), restricted areas (flight only with permission), warning areas (hazardous, over water), MOAs (military training, VFR permitted with caution), and alert areas.

Airport data on sectionals: runway length and lighting, CTAF/UNICOM frequency, and pattern altitude are in the Chart Supplement; tower and ground frequencies are on the sectional data block.

Required VFR equipment (FAR 91.205): airspeed indicator, altimeter, magnetic direction indicator, tachometer, oil pressure gauge, temperature gauge, fuel gauge, landing gear indicator, anti-collision lights, and safety belts.

VFR weather minimums in Class G below 1,200 ft AGL day: 1 statute mile visibility and clear of clouds; in Class E below 10,000 ft MSL: 3 statute miles and 500 ft below, 1,000 ft above, 2,000 ft horizontal from clouds.

Pilotage requires visible ground reference; dead reckoning requires accurate wind and heading data. When both are unreliable, use radio navigation (VOR, GPS, ADF) to fix position.

Two-bearing fix: take a bearing from two stations or landmarks at nearly the same time; the intersection of the plotted lines is your position. A third line confirms the fix.

VOR station passage is indicated by a TO/FROM flag reversal and rapid CDI swing; time to station = (minutes between two radials) ÷ (degrees of radial change).

GPS RAIM (receiver autonomous integrity monitoring) predicts whether enough satellites are available for the intended route; check RAIM before departure for IFR or long cross-countries.

DME gives slant range distance to the station; ground distance = √(DME² − altitude²). DME distance reads slightly high at high altitude and short range.

Magnetic heading to fly a true course: TC + variation (east is least, west is best) = MH; then apply wind correction. Deviation is applied last to get compass heading.

Emergency navigation: if lost, climb to improve radio and visual range, note the time, and use VOR cross-bearings or GPS to fix position before declaring an emergency or requesting vectors.

Flight planning: use current winds aloft forecasts, compute TAS from altitude and temperature, then solve the wind triangle for groundspeed and heading; verify against actual checkpoint times in flight.

E6B wind side: place wind direction under the true index, mark wind speed above the grommet, set TAS under the grommet, rotate to true course, and read wind correction angle and groundspeed.

E6B calculator side: align distance on the outer scale with time on the inner scale to read groundspeed; align fuel burn with time to read total fuel.

Sectional symbology: magenta = Class E starting at 700 ft AGL or Class B/C/D/E airport; blue = Class E starting at 1,200 ft AGL or Class G airport; magenta dashed = Class E surface area.

Obstacle and terrain: obstacles are marked with their height above ground and MSL; terrain elevation is shown by contour lines and spot elevations. Fly at least 500 ft above obstacles in cruise.

Latitude/longitude plotting: 1 minute of latitude = 1 NM; 1 minute of longitude = 1 NM × cos(latitude). Use the chart's tick marks and a plotter to measure course and distance.

Radio failure in VFR: squawk 7600, remain VFR, and land at the nearest suitable airport; use light signals from the tower (steady green = cleared to land).

Airport lighting: rotating beacon - white and green = civilian land airport; white and yellow = water airport; green, yellow, and white = heliport. Pilot-controlled lighting is activated by keying the mic a set number of times.

Weight and balance affects navigation performance: an aft center of gravity increases cruise speed slightly but reduces stability; compute CG limits before every flight.

True airspeed increases about 2% per 1,000 ft of altitude for a given indicated airspeed; use this to estimate TAS when a flight computer is unavailable.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − standard temperature at that altitude). High density altitude reduces climb and cruise performance.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude ± 1,000 ft per inch of altimeter setting deviation from 29.92 inHg; use for flight levels and performance charts.

Wind triangle with a flight computer: if groundspeed is less than TAS, you have a headwind component; the difference is the headwind, and the WCA shows the drift correction needed.

Time to station from VOR: turn 90 degrees from the radial, time until the CDI centers, then time to station = elapsed time × 60 ÷ degrees turned.

Cross-country planning: choose checkpoints at prominent landmarks, compute leg distance and time, sum fuel, and include alternate and reserve fuel before departure.

Magnetic variation on sectionals is shown by isogonic lines labeled in degrees east or west; the agonic line has zero variation.

Position reporting: at uncontrolled airports, announce position and intentions on CTAF at 10 NM out, on downwind, base, and final; use the airport's name and your call sign.

VFR flight plan: file with Flight Service, activate after departure, and close on arrival; failure to close triggers search and rescue. VFR flight following is a request to ATC for traffic advisories and is not a flight plan.

Transponder codes: 1200 = VFR, 7700 = emergency, 7600 = radio failure, 7500 = hijack. Mode C reports altitude; the transponder must be on in Class B and C airspace.

Class B airspace is depicted by solid blue lines with altitude floors/ceilings; Class C by solid magenta lines; Class D by dashed blue lines; Class E surface areas by dashed magenta lines.

Airspace floor/ceiling notation: numbers like 30/SFC or 50/30 mean the top and bottom of the airspace in hundreds of feet MSL; SFC means the surface.

Chart Supplement (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) contains runway data, frequencies, pattern altitudes, and special notices not shown on sectionals.

NOTAMs: check for temporary flight restrictions (TFRs), runway closures, and navaid outages before every flight; TFRs are legally binding and can be issued with little notice.

Magnetic compass calibration: deviation is read from the compass correction card and applied after variation; the card is required equipment and must be current.

Lost procedures: climb, circle, and use radio navigation or GPS to fix position; if unable, contact ATC on 121.5 MHz and declare an emergency.

Magnetic course vs true course: apply variation to convert between them. On a sectional, courses measured with a plotter are true; the flight computer converts to magnetic.

Wind correction: crab into the wind so the aircraft's track equals the desired course; the heading differs from the course by the wind correction angle.

Groundspeed check: compare actual time between checkpoints to planned time; if slower than planned, groundspeed is lower and fuel burn per NM is higher.

Fuel management: use the aircraft's fuel burn at cruise power, add taxi and climb fuel, and reserve 30 min day or 45 min night VFR; never plan to land with less than reserve.

Radio navigation: VOR gives bearing, DME gives distance, GPS gives position and track; use at least two sources to confirm position when possible.

Sectional chart revision cycle is 56 days; check the effective date on the chart and use current charts for flight planning.

Airport elevation and pattern altitude: pattern altitude is typically airport elevation plus 1,000 ft; enter the pattern on the downwind at 45 degrees to the runway.

Dead reckoning formula: distance = groundspeed × time; time = distance ÷ groundspeed; groundspeed = distance ÷ time. Use consistent units (NM and hours or minutes).

Wind triangle: the wind vector plus the air vector equals the ground vector. Solve with a flight computer or by trigonometry using the law of sines.

True heading = true course − wind correction angle (crab into the wind); magnetic heading = true heading ± variation.

Compass heading = magnetic heading ± deviation. Deviation is read from the compass correction card and is specific to the aircraft and heading.

Altimeter errors: flying from low to high pressure without adjusting causes the altimeter to read lower than actual; flying from high to low causes it to read higher than actual.

Position fixing: use VOR cross-bearings, GPS, or visual landmarks; a fix from two lines at a shallow angle is less accurate than one from lines near 90 degrees.

Flight planning sequence: plot the route, measure true course and distance, obtain winds aloft, compute TAS, solve the wind triangle, then compute time and fuel for each leg.

Emergency diversion: if weather or fuel requires a diversion, select the nearest suitable airport, compute distance and fuel, and advise ATC of your intentions.

Sectional chart scale: 1:500,000 means 1 inch on the chart equals about 8 statute miles or 6.86 NM on the ground.

Measuring course: use a plotter aligned with the true course line and read the angle from a meridian; meridians are true north lines on the chart.

VOR frequency and identification: tune the frequency, listen for the Morse code identifier, and confirm the station is operational before relying on it.

GPS navigation: enter waypoints, verify the active leg, and monitor track and distance; GPS does not replace pilotage or dead reckoning for VFR flight.

Airspace entry: Class B requires a clearance, Class C requires radio contact and transponder, Class D requires radio contact; Class E and G have no clearance requirement for VFR.

Weather minimums: VFR cloud clearance and visibility depend on airspace class and altitude; know the values for Class B, C, D, E, and G before flight.

Magnetic variation is east or west; east variation means magnetic north is east of true north, so magnetic heading is less than true heading (east is least).

Time en route with wind: if the wind is a pure headwind, groundspeed = TAS − wind speed; pure tailwind, groundspeed = TAS + wind speed; crosswind reduces groundspeed by the cosine of the wind angle.

Fuel burn per hour is roughly constant at a given power setting; fuel per NM varies inversely with groundspeed.

Checkpoint selection: choose landmarks that are easy to identify from the air, such as towns, rivers, highways, and airports; avoid features that look alike.

Compass errors: turning errors are greatest on north and south headings; acceleration errors are greatest on east and west headings.

Altimeter setting: set the altimeter to the current altimeter setting before flight and update it en route from ATIS or Flight Service.

Flight following: request it from ATC after departure; it provides traffic advisories and emergency assistance but does not relieve the pilot of see-and-avoid responsibility.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz is monitored by ATC and emergency services; use it to declare an emergency or request assistance.

VOR radial tracking: the CDI centers when the aircraft is on the selected radial; fly toward the needle to intercept, and correct for wind drift to hold the radial.

GPS track vs heading: track is the actual path over the ground; heading is where the nose points. The difference is the drift angle caused by wind.

Sectional chart legend: airports, navaids, airspace, and obstacles are depicted with standard symbols; study the legend to interpret unfamiliar features.

Airport traffic pattern: standard pattern is left turns; right traffic is noted on the chart or in the Chart Supplement.

Density altitude affects takeoff and climb performance; compute it before flight on hot or high-elevation days.

Radio communications: use standard phraseology, state your call sign and position, and read back clearances and instructions.

Lost communication: squawk 7600, continue VFR, and land at the nearest suitable airport; use light signals if a tower is available.

Magnetic heading calculation: TC + variation (east is least, west is best) = MH; then apply wind correction to get the heading to fly.

Wind correction angle: sin(WCA) = (wind speed ÷ TAS) × sin(wind angle off course); the crab angle is into the wind.

Groundspeed: GS = TAS × cos(WCA) − wind component along course; for small WCA, GS ≈ TAS − headwind component.

Fuel planning: total fuel = taxi + climb + cruise + descent + reserve; compute each leg separately and sum.

Sectional chart currency: charts are revised every 56 days; using an expired chart may lead to airspace or navaid errors.

Airspace classes: B, C, D, E, and G; each has specific equipment, communication, and weather minimum requirements.

Position reporting: at uncontrolled airports, announce your position and intentions on CTAF; at towered airports, follow ATC instructions.

Pilotage checkpoints: note the time over each checkpoint and compare to the planned ETA; adjust heading or power to stay on schedule.

Dead reckoning: use the computed heading, time, and speed to estimate position; verify with pilotage or radio navigation.

VOR cross-bearing fix: tune two VORs, center each CDI, and plot the radials; the intersection is your position.

GPS RAIM: check satellite availability before flight; RAIM predicts whether the GPS can provide integrity for the route.

Altimeter setting: flying from high to low pressure without adjusting the altimeter causes the aircraft to be lower than indicated.

Emergency: if lost, climb, circle, and use radio navigation or GPS to fix position; declare an emergency if unable to determine position.

Flight plan: file, activate, and close a VFR flight plan; failure to close triggers search and rescue.

True airspeed: TAS ≈ IAS + (2% × IAS per 1,000 ft); use a flight computer for accurate values.

Density altitude: DA = PA + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature); high DA reduces performance.

Pressure altitude: PA = indicated altitude ± 1,000 ft per inch of altimeter setting deviation from 29.92 inHg.

Wind triangle: wind vector + air vector = ground vector; solve for groundspeed and heading.

VOR time to station: time to station = elapsed time × 60 ÷ degrees of radial change.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles or 6.86 NM.

Airspace: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Magnetic variation: east is least, west is best; apply variation to convert true course to magnetic course.

Deviation: read from the compass correction card; apply after variation to get compass heading.

Compass errors: turning and acceleration errors are greatest on north/south and east/west headings respectively.

Altimeter: set to current altimeter setting; flying from high to low pressure without adjustment causes the aircraft to be lower than indicated.

Fuel reserve: 30 min day VFR, 45 min night VFR; never plan to land with less than reserve.

Radio navigation: VOR, DME, GPS; use at least two sources to confirm position.

Lost procedures: climb, circle, use radio navigation or GPS, and declare an emergency if unable to fix position.

Sectional chart revision cycle: 56 days; check the effective date before flight.

Airport data: runway length, lighting, CTAF/UNICOM, and pattern altitude are in the Chart Supplement.

Class E airspace floor: magenta shading = 700 ft AGL; blue shading = 1,200 ft AGL.

Special use airspace: prohibited, restricted, warning, MOA, and alert areas; know the restrictions before flight.

VFR equipment: FAR 91.205 lists required instruments and equipment for day and night VFR.

VFR weather minimums: depend on airspace class and altitude; know the values before flight.

Emergency frequency: 121.5 MHz is monitored by ATC and emergency services.

Flight planning: plot route, measure course and distance, obtain winds aloft, compute TAS, solve wind triangle, compute time and fuel.

Wind correction: crab into the wind to maintain the desired track; the heading differs from course by the WCA.

Groundspeed check: compare actual time between checkpoints to planned time; adjust heading or power as needed.

Fuel management: compute fuel for each leg plus reserve; monitor fuel in flight and divert if necessary.

Radio navigation: VOR gives bearing, DME gives distance, GPS gives position and track.

Airspace entry: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Emergency: declare an emergency on 121.5 MHz and follow ATC instructions.

Magnetic course: apply variation to true course; east is least, west is best.

Compass heading: apply deviation from the compass correction card after variation.

Wind triangle: wind vector + air vector = ground vector; solve for groundspeed and heading.

VOR radial: magnetic bearing from the station; to fly TO the station, set the OBS to the radial and fly the reciprocal.

GPS: enter waypoints, verify the active leg, and monitor track and distance.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles or 6.86 NM.

Airspace: Class B, C, D, E, and G; each has specific requirements.

True airspeed: TAS ≈ IAS + 2% per 1,000 ft; use a flight computer for accuracy.

Density altitude: DA = PA + 120 × (OAT − ISA); high DA reduces performance.

Pressure altitude: PA = indicated altitude ± 1,000 ft per inch from 29.92 inHg.

Wind triangle: solve for groundspeed and heading using wind speed and direction.

VOR time to station: time = elapsed time × 60 ÷ degrees of radial change.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles.

Airspace: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Magnetic variation: east is least, west is best; apply to true course to get magnetic course.

Deviation: read from the compass correction card; apply after variation.

Compass errors: turning and acceleration errors are greatest on north/south and east/west headings.

Altimeter: set to current altimeter setting; flying from high to low pressure without adjustment causes the aircraft to be lower than indicated.

Fuel reserve: 30 min day VFR, 45 min night VFR.

Radio navigation: VOR, DME, GPS; use at least two sources to confirm position.

Lost procedures: climb, circle, use radio navigation or GPS, and declare an emergency if unable to fix position.

Sectional chart revision cycle: 56 days; check the effective date.

Airport data: runway length, lighting, CTAF/UNICOM, and pattern altitude are in the Chart Supplement.

Class E airspace floor: magenta shading = 700 ft AGL; blue shading = 1,200 ft AGL.

Special use airspace: prohibited, restricted, warning, MOA, and alert areas.

VFR equipment: FAR 91.205 lists required instruments and equipment.

VFR weather minimums: depend on airspace class and altitude.

Emergency frequency: 121.5 MHz is monitored by ATC and emergency services.

Flight planning: plot route, measure course and distance, obtain winds aloft, compute TAS, solve wind triangle, compute time and fuel.

Wind correction: crab into the wind to maintain the desired track.

Groundspeed check: compare actual time between checkpoints to planned time.

Fuel management: compute fuel for each leg plus reserve; monitor fuel in flight.

Radio navigation: VOR gives bearing, DME gives distance, GPS gives position and track.

Airspace entry: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Emergency: declare an emergency on 121.5 MHz and follow ATC instructions.

Magnetic course: apply variation to true course; east is least, west is best.

Compass heading: apply deviation from the compass correction card after variation.

Wind triangle: wind vector + air vector = ground vector.

VOR radial: magnetic bearing from the station; to fly TO the station, set the OBS to the radial and fly the reciprocal.

GPS: enter waypoints, verify the active leg, and monitor track and distance.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles.

Airspace: Class B, C, D, E, and G; each has specific requirements.

True airspeed: TAS ≈ IAS + 2% per 1,000 ft.

Density altitude: DA = PA + 120 × (OAT − ISA).

Pressure altitude: PA = indicated altitude ± 1,000 ft per inch from 29.92 inHg.

Wind triangle: solve for groundspeed and heading.

VOR time to station: time = elapsed time × 60 ÷ degrees of radial change.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles.

Airspace: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Magnetic variation: east is least, west is best.

Deviation: read from the compass correction card; apply after variation.

Compass errors: turning and acceleration errors are greatest on north/south and east/west headings.

Altimeter: set to current altimeter setting; flying from high to low pressure without adjustment causes the aircraft to be lower than indicated.

Fuel reserve: 30 min day VFR, 45 min night VFR.

Radio navigation: VOR, DME, GPS; use at least two sources to confirm position.

Lost procedures: climb, circle, use radio navigation or GPS, and declare an emergency if unable to fix position.

Sectional chart revision cycle: 56 days.

Airport data: runway length, lighting, CTAF/UNICOM, and pattern altitude are in the Chart Supplement.

Class E airspace floor: magenta shading = 700 ft AGL; blue shading = 1,200 ft AGL.

Special use airspace: prohibited, restricted, warning, MOA, and alert areas.

VFR equipment: FAR 91.205 lists required instruments and equipment.

VFR weather minimums: depend on airspace class and altitude.

Emergency frequency: 121.5 MHz is monitored by ATC and emergency services.

Flight planning: plot route, measure course and distance, obtain winds aloft, compute TAS, solve wind triangle, compute time and fuel.

Wind correction: crab into the wind to maintain the desired track.

Groundspeed check: compare actual time between checkpoints to planned time.

Fuel management: compute fuel for each leg plus reserve; monitor fuel in flight.

Radio navigation: VOR gives bearing, DME gives distance, GPS gives position and track.

Airspace entry: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Emergency: declare an emergency on 121.5 MHz and follow ATC instructions.

Magnetic course: apply variation to true course; east is least, west is best.

Compass heading: apply deviation from the compass correction card after variation.

Wind triangle: wind vector + air vector = ground vector.

VOR radial: magnetic bearing from the station; to fly TO the station, set the OBS to the radial and fly the reciprocal.

GPS: enter waypoints, verify the active leg, and monitor track and distance.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles.

Airspace: Class B, C, D, E, and G; each has specific requirements.

True airspeed: TAS ≈ IAS + 2% per 1,000 ft.

Density altitude: DA = PA + 120 × (OAT − ISA).

Pressure altitude: PA = indicated altitude ± 1,000 ft per inch from 29.92 inHg.

Wind triangle: solve for groundspeed and heading.

VOR time to station: time = elapsed time × 60 ÷ degrees of radial change.

Sectional scale: 1:500,000; 1 inch ≈ 8 statute miles.

Airspace: Class B requires clearance; Class C requires radio and transponder; Class D requires radio contact.

Magnetic variation: east is least, west is best.

Deviation: read from the compass correction card; apply after variation.

Compass errors: turning and acceleration errors are greatest on north/south and east/west headings.

Altimeter: set to current altimeter setting; flying from high to low pressure without adjustment causes the aircraft to be lower than indicated.

Fuel reserve: 30 min day VFR, 45 min night VFR.

Radio navigation: VOR, DME, GPS; use at least two sources to confirm position.

Lost procedures: climb, circle, use radio navigation or GPS, and declare an emergency if unable to fix position.

Sectional chart revision cycle: 56 days.

Airport data: runway length, lighting, CTAF/UNICOM, and pattern altitude are in the Chart Supplement.

Class E airspace floor: magenta shading = 700 ft AGL; blue shading = 1,200 ft AGL.

Special use airspace: prohibited, restricted, warning, MOA, and alert areas.

VFR equipment: FAR 91.205 lists required instruments and equipment.

VFR weather minimums: depend on airspace class and altitude.

Emergency frequency: 121.5 MHz is monitored by ATC and emergency services.