Nepal Police Inspector cheat sheet

Nepal's federal structure has 7 provinces, 77 districts and 753 local units (6 metropolitan cities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities, 276 municipalities, 460 rural municipalities).

Nepal became a federal democratic republic on 28 May 2008, the date the first Constituent Assembly declared the monarchy abolished.

The Constitution of Nepal was promulgated on 20 September 2015 (3 Ashoj 2072 BS) by the second Constituent Assembly.

Nepal's area is 147,516 sq km; it borders China (Tibet) to the north and India to the east, west and south; the highest point is Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) at 8,848.86 m.

Nepal is the 2nd largest contributor to UN peacekeeping among troop-contributing countries per capita and has served in missions since 1958.

SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985; its permanent secretariat is in Kathmandu.

Nepal joined the World Trade Organization on 23 April 2004 and the United Nations on 14 December 1955.

The National Planning Commission prepares periodic plans; Nepal's 16th Plan period runs from FY 2081/82 (2024/25) to 2085/86.

Key constitutional bodies: Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority, Office of the Auditor General, Public Service Commission, Election Commission, National Human Rights Commission, National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015 has 35 Parts, 308 Articles and 9 Schedules.

Article 4 defines Nepal as an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive, democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state.

Fundamental rights are in Part 3 (Articles 16-46); the right to constitutional remedy under Article 46 allows a writ petition in the Supreme Court for enforcement.

Article 27 guarantees the right to information; Article 28 guarantees the right to privacy.

Citizenship provisions are in Part 2 (Articles 10-15); Article 11 sets out citizenship by descent, birth, naturalisation and honorary citizenship.

The President is elected by an electoral college of federal and provincial parliament members; the President appoints the Prime Minister who must command a majority in the House of Representatives (Article 76).

Directive Principles, Policies and Obligations of the State are in Part 4 (Articles 49-54) and are non-justiciable in courts.

Article 274 sets the procedure for constitutional amendment: a bill must pass both Houses by a two-thirds majority; matters of provincial boundaries need consent of the affected provincial assembly.

Emergency powers are in Part 18 (Articles 271-273); a proclamation of emergency must be approved by the House of Representatives within one month.

Nepal follows a civil law tradition; the Muluki Civil Code 2074 and Muluki Criminal Code 2074 replaced the Muluki Ain of 1910 and took effect on 17 August 2018 (1 Bhadra 2075).

The court hierarchy is Supreme Court, High Courts (one per province), District Courts, and local judicial committees for mediation of certain disputes.

The Supreme Court has original writ jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction; it may issue habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto (Article 133).

Judicial precedents of the Supreme Court bind all courts below (Article 128(4)); the Supreme Court may review its own decisions.

The Judicial Council (Article 153) recommends appointments, transfers and disciplinary actions for judges.

The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor to the Government of Nepal and appears for the government in the Supreme Court (Articles 157-158).

The Nepal Law Commission drafts and revises legislation; the Federal Parliament consists of the House of Representatives (275 members) and the National Assembly (59 members).

The statute of limitations under the Criminal Code generally bars prosecution of offences carrying up to three years' imprisonment after one year from the offence date, subject to exceptions.

Nepal Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police (IGP); ranks below IGP are Additional IGP, Deputy IGP, Senior Superintendent (SSP), Superintendent (SP), Deputy Superintendent (DSP), Inspector, Sub-Inspector (SI), Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI), Head Constable, Constable and Police Trainee.

The Police Act 2012 (1955) and Police Regulations 2071 govern organisation, discipline and duties; the Nepal Police Act 2074 (2018) is the current framework law.

The IGP is appointed by the Government of Nepal on the recommendation of a committee and serves a fixed term; the Ministry of Home Affairs exercises administrative oversight.

Nepal Police has metropolitan police ranges, provincial police offices in all 7 provinces, and district police offices in 77 districts.

Specialised units include the Central Investigation Bureau (CIB), Metropolitan Police Crime Division, Armed Police Force (a separate force under the Ministry of Home Affairs), and the National Investigation Department (under the Prime Minister's Office).

The Police Training Academy at Maharajgunj and the National Police Academy provide basic and in-service training; recruit constables complete approximately six months of basic training.

Community policing programmes include Community Police Partnership, Child-Friendly Police, and Women and Children Service Centres in district police offices.

The chain of command runs from the IGP through provincial police chiefs to district chiefs; local units coordinate with ward police under federal law.

Under the Muluki Criminal Code 2074, offences are classified by punishment: offences with up to 3 years' imprisonment, 3-10 years, and over 10 years, with different limitation and bail rules.

The Criminal Procedure Code 2074 (2017) governs investigation, arrest, bail, trial and appeal; it requires a person arrested to be produced before a court within 24 hours, excluding travel time (Article 35 of the Constitution).

Bail (dharauni) is generally a right for offences punishable by up to 3 years; for graver offences the court decides on bail considering flight risk and evidence tampering.

A First Information Report (jaharī) starts investigation; police must register it and give the informant a receipt, and may not refuse to register a cognizable offence.

The Public Prosecutor's Office decides whether to file a charge-sheet (abhiyog patra); the police must complete investigation within 25 days, extendable by the court.

Evidence law follows the Muluki Civil Procedure Code and the Evidence Act 2031; confessions to police are not admissible, but confessions before a court or judicial authority may be recorded.

The Criminal Code sets penalties including imprisonment, fine, forfeiture and compensation to victims; life imprisonment means imprisonment for 20 years or until death, as specified.

Juvenile justice is governed by the Juvenile Justice Act 2075; children under 10 cannot be held criminally liable, and 10-18 year-olds are handled by juvenile benches.

Nepal's civil service is regulated by the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993); the Public Service Commission conducts open competitive examinations for entry.

The Local Government Operation Act 2074 assigns 22 exclusive and 15 concurrent functions to local units, including basic health, basic education, local roads and land revenue collection.

Good governance principles include rule of law, accountability, transparency, participation, responsiveness and efficiency; Nepal's Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act 2064 codifies these.

The Right to Information Act 2064 requires public bodies to appoint an information officer and respond to requests within 15 days.

The National Vigilance Centre and the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority are the main anti-corruption bodies; the CIAA may investigate and prosecute but not adjudicate.

Federalism devolves power to 7 provinces and 753 local units; the Inter-Provincial Council chaired by the Prime Minister resolves federal-provincial disputes.

Performance management uses annual performance agreements and the Public Service Commission's promotion criteria based on seniority, performance appraisal and examination.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subjects take singular verbs; collective nouns (team, committee) take singular verbs when acting as a unit, plural when members act individually.

Tenses: present perfect (has/have + past participle) links past action to present; past perfect (had + past participle) marks the earlier of two past actions.

Passive voice: object becomes subject + be + past participle + by-agent; only transitive verbs can be made passive.

Conditionals: first (if + present, will + base), second (if + past, would + base), third (if + past perfect, would have + past participle).

Articles: 'a/an' for indefinite, 'the' for definite or unique referents; no article with uncountable nouns used generally.

Prepositions of time: in (months, years, seasons), on (days, dates), at (clock times); 'since' with a point in time, 'for' with a duration.

Direct to indirect speech: shift tense back one step, change pronouns and time words (now -> then, today -> that day, tomorrow -> the next day).

Common error traps: 'one of the + plural noun + singular verb', 'each/every + singular noun', and 'neither...nor' takes the verb of the nearer subject.

नेपाली वर्णमालामा ११ स्वर र ३३ व्यञ्जन गरी ४४ वर्ण हुन्छन्; स्वरहरू अ, आ, इ, ई, उ, ऊ, ऋ, ए, ऐ, ओ, औ हुन्।

लिङ्ग: पुलिङ्ग र स्त्रीलिङ्ग; स्त्रीलिङ्गमा 'ा' वा 'ी' जोडिन्छ (छोरा-छोरी, केटा-केटी), तर केही अपवाद छन् (राजा-रानी)।

वचन: एकवचन र बहुवचन; बहुवचन जनाउन 'हरू' प्रत्यय वा क्रियारूपबाट (केटा आयो / केटाहरू आए)।

कारक र विभक्ति: कर्ता (ले), कर्म (लाई), करण (ले/द्वारा), सम्प्रदान (लाई), अपादान (बाट), सम्बन्ध (को/का/की), अधिकरण (मा/भित्र)।

काल: वर्तमान, भूत, भविष्यत्; पक्ष: सामान्य, अपूर्ण, पूर्ण (गर्छ, गर्दैछ, गरिसक्यो)।

वाक्य संरचना: कर्ता + कर्म + क्रिया (SOV) नेपालीको सामान्य क्रम हो; विशेषण विशेष्यभन्दा अगाडि आउँछ।

पदवर्ग: नाम, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रियायोगी, क्रिया, नामयोगी, संयोजक, विस्मयादिबोधक, निपात।

शब्दभण्डार: तत्सम (संस्कृतबाट), तद्भव (परिवर्तित), आगन्तुक (अन्य भाषाबाट) र देशज शब्दहरू।

Percentage change = (new - old) / old x 100; successive percentage changes of a% and b% give net change a + b + ab/100.

Simple interest = P x R x T / 100; compound interest = P[(1 + R/100)^T - 1].

Profit and loss: profit% = (SP - CP)/CP x 100; when a discount d% is given, SP = MP(1 - d/100).

Speed, time and distance: distance = speed x time; for two trains crossing, relative speed adds for opposite directions and subtracts for same direction.

Ratio and proportion: if a:b = c:d then ad = bc; to divide N in ratio a:b:c, shares are N x a/(a+b+c) etc.

Average = sum of observations / number of observations; if each value is increased by k, the average increases by k.

Permutation and combination: nPr = n!/(n-r)!; nCr = n!/[r!(n-r)!]; nC0 = nCn = 1.

Work and time: if A does work in x days and B in y days, together they take xy/(x+y) days; work rate is 1/x per day.

Number system: divisibility by 3 or 9 if digit sum is divisible; by 4 if last two digits are divisible; by 11 if alternating digit-sum difference is divisible by 11.

Newton's laws: F = ma; every action has an equal and opposite reaction; a body stays at rest or uniform motion unless acted on by a net force.

Ohm's law: V = IR; power P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R; resistors in series add, in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2.

The human body has 206 bones in adults, 32 teeth, and blood pH around 7.35-7.45; the largest organ is the skin.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2, occurring in chloroplasts with chlorophyll.

The periodic table orders elements by atomic number; group 1 are alkali metals, group 17 halogens, group 18 noble gases.

Diseases: malaria is caused by Plasmodium and spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes; dengue by the Aedes aegypti mosquito; tuberculosis by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

SI units: length metre, mass kilogram, time second, current ampere, temperature kelvin, amount mole, luminous intensity candela.

Acids turn blue litmus red, bases turn red litmus blue; pH below 7 is acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic.

Nepal's total fertility rate is around 2.0 and life expectancy around 70 years; infant mortality has declined substantially since 2000.

The Ministry of Health and Population delivers services through federal hospitals, 7 provincial health directorates, district health offices and 753 local health units.

The Health Insurance Board (established 2016) provides subsidised insurance with a family premium of NPR 3,500 and coverage up to NPR 100,000 per year.

Major environmental laws: Environment Protection Act 2076 and Regulation 2077 require Initial Environmental Examination or Environmental Impact Assessment for prescribed projects.

Protected areas cover roughly 23% of Nepal's land; there are 12 national parks, 1 wildlife reserve, 6 conservation areas and 10 Ramsar sites.

Air quality is measured by PM2.5 and PM10; Kathmandu's winter pollution is driven by vehicular emissions, brick kilns and temperature inversion.

Climate change adaptation is guided by the National Adaptation Plan (2021-2050); Nepal aims for net-zero emissions by 2045.

Solid waste management is a local government function under the Local Government Operation Act; the Solid Waste Management Act 2068 provides the framework.

The National Human Rights Commission is a constitutional body under Article 249; it may inquire into violations, recommend action and monitor treaties.

Nepal ratified the ICCPR and ICESCR in 1991, CEDAW in 1991, CRC in 1990, CAT in 1991 and the CRPD in 2010.

Article 16 guarantees the right to live with dignity; Article 17 guarantees freedom of expression; Article 18 equality; Article 20 rights of the accused; Article 22 rights of the child.

The right against torture is absolute under Article 22(1) and the Torture Compensation Act 2053 provides compensation to victims.

The Human Rights Treaty Monitoring Coordination Committee coordinates civil society reporting to UN treaty bodies.

Nepal underwent a Universal Periodic Review in 2011, 2015, 2021; recommendations cover transitional justice, caste discrimination and disability rights.

The Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission were set up in 2015 to address conflict-era violations.

Article 38 of the Constitution guarantees women's rights, including equal lineage rights and protection against violence; Article 42 covers social justice.

The Constitution requires at least 33% women in the House of Representatives and provincial assemblies through proportional representation, and one woman among the President or Vice-President.

The Civil Service Act requires 45% reservation in recruitment for women, indigenous nationalities, Madhesi, Dalit, persons with disabilities and backward regions.

The Gender Empowerment Measure and Gender Inequality Index track disparities; Nepal's GII remains high due to low female labour force participation.

The Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act 2066 criminalises domestic violence and provides for protection orders and interim relief.

The Sexual Harassment (Elimination) Act 2071 requires every workplace to form a complaint committee and display its contact details.

The National Strategy and Action Plan on Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) mainstreams inclusion across federal, provincial and local plans.

The Dalit community faces caste-based discrimination, prohibited by Article 24 and the Caste-Based Discrimination and Untouchability (Offence and Punishment) Act 2068.

Nepal's federal structure has 7 provinces, 77 districts and 753 local units (6 metropolitan cities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities, 276 municipalities, 460 rural municipalities).

Nepal became a federal democratic republic on 28 May 2008, the date the first Constituent Assembly declared the monarchy abolished.

The Constitution of Nepal was promulgated on 20 September 2015 (3 Ashoj 2072 BS) by the second Constituent Assembly.

Nepal's area is 147,516 sq km; it borders China (Tibet) to the north and India to the east, west and south; the highest point is Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) at 8,848.86 m.

Nepal is the 2nd largest contributor to UN peacekeeping among troop-contributing countries per capita and has served in missions since 1958.

SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985; its permanent secretariat is in Kathmandu.

Nepal joined the World Trade Organization on 23 April 2004 and the United Nations on 14 December 1955.

The National Planning Commission prepares periodic plans; Nepal's 16th Plan period runs from FY 2081/82 (2024/25) to 2085/86.

Key constitutional bodies: Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority, Office of the Auditor General, Public Service Commission, Election Commission, National Human Rights Commission, National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015 has 35 Parts, 308 Articles and 9 Schedules.

Article 4 defines Nepal as an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive, democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state.

Fundamental rights are in Part 3 (Articles 16-46); the right to constitutional remedy under Article 46 allows a writ petition in the Supreme Court for enforcement.

Article 27 guarantees the right to information; Article 28 guarantees the right to privacy.

Citizenship provisions are in Part 2 (Articles 10-15); Article 11 sets out citizenship by descent, birth, naturalisation and honorary citizenship.

The President is elected by an electoral college of federal and provincial parliament members; the President appoints the Prime Minister who must command a majority in the House of Representatives (Article 76).

Directive Principles, Policies and Obligations of the State are in Part 4 (Articles 49-54) and are non-justiciable in courts.

Article 274 sets the procedure for constitutional amendment: a bill must pass both Houses by a two-thirds majority; matters of provincial boundaries need consent of the affected provincial assembly.

Emergency powers are in Part 18 (Articles 271-273); a proclamation of emergency must be approved by the House of Representatives within one month.

Nepal follows a civil law tradition; the Muluki Civil Code 2074 and Muluki Criminal Code 2074 replaced the Muluki Ain of 1910 and took effect on 17 August 2018 (1 Bhadra 2075).

The court hierarchy is Supreme Court, High Courts (one per province), District Courts, and local judicial committees for mediation of certain disputes.

The Supreme Court has original writ jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction; it may issue habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto (Article 133).

Judicial precedents of the Supreme Court bind all courts below (Article 128(4)); the Supreme Court may review its own decisions.

The Judicial Council (Article 153) recommends appointments, transfers and disciplinary actions for judges.

The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor to the Government of Nepal and appears for the government in the Supreme Court (Articles 157-158).

The Nepal Law Commission drafts and revises legislation; the Federal Parliament consists of the House of Representatives (275 members) and the National Assembly (59 members).

The statute of limitations under the Criminal Code generally bars prosecution of offences carrying up to three years' imprisonment after one year from the offence date, subject to exceptions.

Nepal Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police (IGP); ranks below IGP are Additional IGP, Deputy IGP, Senior Superintendent (SSP), Superintendent (SP), Deputy Superintendent (DSP), Inspector, Sub-Inspector (SI), Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI), Head Constable, Constable and Police Trainee.

The Police Act 2012 (1955) and Police Regulations 2071 govern organisation, discipline and duties; the Nepal Police Act 2074 (2018) is the current framework law.

The IGP is appointed by the Government of Nepal on the recommendation of a committee and serves a fixed term; the Ministry of Home Affairs exercises administrative oversight.

Nepal Police has metropolitan police ranges, provincial police offices in all 7 provinces, and district police offices in 77 districts.

Specialised units include the Central Investigation Bureau (CIB), Metropolitan Police Crime Division, Armed Police Force (a separate force under the Ministry of Home Affairs), and the National Investigation Department (under the Prime Minister's Office).

The Police Training Academy at Maharajgunj and the National Police Academy provide basic and in-service training; recruit constables complete approximately six months of basic training.

Community policing programmes include Community Police Partnership, Child-Friendly Police, and Women and Children Service Centres in district police offices.

The chain of command runs from the IGP through provincial police chiefs to district chiefs; local units coordinate with ward police under federal law.

Under the Muluki Criminal Code 2074, offences are classified by punishment: offences with up to 3 years' imprisonment, 3-10 years, and over 10 years, with different limitation and bail rules.

The Criminal Procedure Code 2074 (2017) governs investigation, arrest, bail, trial and appeal; it requires a person arrested to be produced before a court within 24 hours, excluding travel time (Article 35 of the Constitution).

Bail (dharauni) is generally a right for offences punishable by up to 3 years; for graver offences the court decides on bail considering flight risk and evidence tampering.

A First Information Report (jaharī) starts investigation; police must register it and give the informant a receipt, and may not refuse to register a cognizable offence.

The Public Prosecutor's Office decides whether to file a charge-sheet (abhiyog patra); the police must complete investigation within 25 days, extendable by the court.

Evidence law follows the Muluki Civil Procedure Code and the Evidence Act 2031; confessions to police are not admissible, but confessions before a court or judicial authority may be recorded.

The Criminal Code sets penalties including imprisonment, fine, forfeiture and compensation to victims; life imprisonment means imprisonment for 20 years or until death, as specified.

Juvenile justice is governed by the Juvenile Justice Act 2075; children under 10 cannot be held criminally liable, and 10-18 year-olds are handled by juvenile benches.

Nepal's civil service is regulated by the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993); the Public Service Commission conducts open competitive examinations for entry.

The Local Government Operation Act 2074 assigns 22 exclusive and 15 concurrent functions to local units, including basic health, basic education, local roads and land revenue collection.

Good governance principles include rule of law, accountability, transparency, participation, responsiveness and efficiency; Nepal's Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act 2064 codifies these.

The Right to Information Act 2064 requires public bodies to appoint an information officer and respond to requests within 15 days.

The National Vigilance Centre and the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority are the main anti-corruption bodies; the CIAA may investigate and prosecute but not adjudicate.

Federalism devolves power to 7 provinces and 753 local units; the Inter-Provincial Council chaired by the Prime Minister resolves federal-provincial disputes.

Performance management uses annual performance agreements and the Public Service Commission's promotion criteria based on seniority, performance appraisal and examination.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subjects take singular verbs; collective nouns (team, committee) take singular verbs when acting as a unit, plural when members act individually.

Tenses: present perfect (has/have + past participle) links past action to present; past perfect (had + past participle) marks the earlier of two past actions.

Passive voice: object becomes subject + be + past participle + by-agent; only transitive verbs can be made passive.

Conditionals: first (if + present, will + base), second (if + past, would + base), third (if + past perfect, would have + past participle).

Articles: 'a/an' for indefinite, 'the' for definite or unique referents; no article with uncountable nouns used generally.

Prepositions of time: in (months, years, seasons), on (days, dates), at (clock times); 'since' with a point in time, 'for' with a duration.

Direct to indirect speech: shift tense back one step, change pronouns and time words (now -> then, today -> that day, tomorrow -> the next day).

Common error traps: 'one of the + plural noun + singular verb', 'each/every + singular noun', and 'neither...nor' takes the verb of the nearer subject.

नेपाली वर्णमालामा ११ स्वर र ३३ व्यञ्जन गरी ४४ वर्ण हुन्छन्; स्वरहरू अ, आ, इ, ई, उ, ऊ, ऋ, ए, ऐ, ओ, औ हुन्।

लिङ्ग: पुलिङ्ग र स्त्रीलिङ्ग; स्त्रीलिङ्गमा 'ा' वा 'ी' जोडिन्छ (छोरा-छोरी, केटा-केटी), तर केही अपवाद छन् (राजा-रानी)।

वचन: एकवचन र बहुवचन; बहुवचन जनाउन 'हरू' प्रत्यय वा क्रियारूपबाट (केटा आयो / केटाहरू आए)।

कारक र विभक्ति: कर्ता (ले), कर्म (लाई), करण (ले/द्वारा), सम्प्रदान (लाई), अपादान (बाट), सम्बन्ध (को/का/की), अधिकरण (मा/भित्र)।

काल: वर्तमान, भूत, भविष्यत्; पक्ष: सामान्य, अपूर्ण, पूर्ण (गर्छ, गर्दैछ, गरिसक्यो)।

वाक्य संरचना: कर्ता + कर्म + क्रिया (SOV) नेपालीको सामान्य क्रम हो; विशेषण विशेष्यभन्दा अगाडि आउँछ।

पदवर्ग: नाम, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रियायोगी, क्रिया, नामयोगी, संयोजक, विस्मयादिबोधक, निपात।

शब्दभण्डार: तत्सम (संस्कृतबाट), तद्भव (परिवर्तित), आगन्तुक (अन्य भाषाबाट) र देशज शब्दहरू।

Percentage change = (new - old) / old x 100; successive percentage changes of a% and b% give net change a + b + ab/100.

Simple interest = P x R x T / 100; compound interest = P[(1 + R/100)^T - 1].

Profit and loss: profit% = (SP - CP)/CP x 100; when a discount d% is given, SP = MP(1 - d/100).

Speed, time and distance: distance = speed x time; for two trains crossing, relative speed adds for opposite directions and subtracts for same direction.

Ratio and proportion: if a:b = c:d then ad = bc; to divide N in ratio a:b:c, shares are N x a/(a+b+c) etc.

Average = sum of observations / number of observations; if each value is increased by k, the average increases by k.

Permutation and combination: nPr = n!/(n-r)!; nCr = n!/[r!(n-r)!]; nC0 = nCn = 1.

Work and time: if A does work in x days and B in y days, together they take xy/(x+y) days; work rate is 1/x per day.

Number system: divisibility by 3 or 9 if digit sum is divisible; by 4 if last two digits are divisible; by 11 if alternating digit-sum difference is divisible by 11.

Newton's laws: F = ma; every action has an equal and opposite reaction; a body stays at rest or uniform motion unless acted on by a net force.

Ohm's law: V = IR; power P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R; resistors in series add, in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2.

The human body has 206 bones in adults, 32 teeth, and blood pH around 7.35-7.45; the largest organ is the skin.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2, occurring in chloroplasts with chlorophyll.

The periodic table orders elements by atomic number; group 1 are alkali metals, group 17 halogens, group 18 noble gases.

Diseases: malaria is caused by Plasmodium and spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes; dengue by the Aedes aegypti mosquito; tuberculosis by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

SI units: length metre, mass kilogram, time second, current ampere, temperature kelvin, amount mole, luminous intensity candela.

Acids turn blue litmus red, bases turn red litmus blue; pH below 7 is acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic.

Nepal's total fertility rate is around 2.0 and life expectancy around 70 years; infant mortality has declined substantially since 2000.

The Ministry of Health and Population delivers services through federal hospitals, 7 provincial health directorates, district health offices and 753 local health units.

The Health Insurance Board (established 2016) provides subsidised insurance with a family premium of NPR 3,500 and coverage up to NPR 100,000 per year.

Major environmental laws: Environment Protection Act 2076 and Regulation 2077 require Initial Environmental Examination or Environmental Impact Assessment for prescribed projects.

Protected areas cover roughly 23% of Nepal's land; there are 12 national parks, 1 wildlife reserve, 6 conservation areas and 10 Ramsar sites.

Air quality is measured by PM2.5 and PM10; Kathmandu's winter pollution is driven by vehicular emissions, brick kilns and temperature inversion.

Climate change adaptation is guided by the National Adaptation Plan (2021-2050); Nepal aims for net-zero emissions by 2045.

Solid waste management is a local government function under the Local Government Operation Act; the Solid Waste Management Act 2068 provides the framework.

The National Human Rights Commission is a constitutional body under Article 249; it may inquire into violations, recommend action and monitor treaties.

Nepal ratified the ICCPR and ICESCR in 1991, CEDAW in 1991, CRC in 1990, CAT in 1991 and the CRPD in 2010.

Article 16 guarantees the right to live with dignity; Article 17 guarantees freedom of expression; Article 18 equality; Article 20 rights of the accused; Article 22 rights of the child.

The right against torture is absolute under Article 22(1) and the Torture Compensation Act 2053 provides compensation to victims.

The Human Rights Treaty Monitoring Coordination Committee coordinates civil society reporting to UN treaty bodies.

Nepal underwent a Universal Periodic Review in 2011, 2015, 2021; recommendations cover transitional justice, caste discrimination and disability rights.

The Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission were set up in 2015 to address conflict-era violations.

Article 38 of the Constitution guarantees women's rights, including equal lineage rights and protection against violence; Article 42 covers social justice.

The Constitution requires at least 33% women in the House of Representatives and provincial assemblies through proportional representation, and one woman among the President or Vice-President.

The Civil Service Act requires 45% reservation in recruitment for women, indigenous nationalities, Madhesi, Dalit, persons with disabilities and backward regions.

The Gender Empowerment Measure and Gender Inequality Index track disparities; Nepal's GII remains high due to low female labour force participation.

The Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act 2066 criminalises domestic violence and provides for protection orders and interim relief.

The Sexual Harassment (Elimination) Act 2071 requires every workplace to form a complaint committee and display its contact details.

The National Strategy and Action Plan on Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) mainstreams inclusion across federal, provincial and local plans.

The Dalit community faces caste-based discrimination, prohibited by Article 24 and the Caste-Based Discrimination and Untouchability (Offence and Punishment) Act 2068.

Nepal's federal structure has 7 provinces, 77 districts and 753 local units (6 metropolitan cities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities, 276 municipalities, 460 rural municipalities).

Nepal became a federal democratic republic on 28 May 2008, the date the first Constituent Assembly declared the monarchy abolished.

The Constitution of Nepal was promulgated on 20 September 2015 (3 Ashoj 2072 BS) by the second Constituent Assembly.

Nepal's area is 147,516 sq km; it borders China (Tibet) to the north and India to the east, west and south; the highest point is Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) at 8,848.86 m.

Nepal is the 2nd largest contributor to UN peacekeeping among troop-contributing countries per capita and has served in missions since 1958.

SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985; its permanent secretariat is in Kathmandu.

Nepal joined the World Trade Organization on 23 April 2004 and the United Nations on 14 December 1955.

The National Planning Commission prepares periodic plans; Nepal's 16th Plan period runs from FY 2081/82 (2024/25) to 2085/86.

Key constitutional bodies: Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority, Office of the Auditor General, Public Service Commission, Election Commission, National Human Rights Commission, National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015 has 35 Parts, 308 Articles and 9 Schedules.

Article 4 defines Nepal as an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive, democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state.

Fundamental rights are in Part 3 (Articles 16-46); the right to constitutional remedy under Article 46 allows a writ petition in the Supreme Court for enforcement.

Article 27 guarantees the right to information; Article 28 guarantees the right to privacy.

Citizenship provisions are in Part 2 (Articles 10-15); Article 11 sets out citizenship by descent, birth, naturalisation and honorary citizenship.

The President is elected by an electoral college of federal and provincial parliament members; the President appoints the Prime Minister who must command a majority in the House of Representatives (Article 76).

Directive Principles, Policies and Obligations of the State are in Part 4 (Articles 49-54) and are non-justiciable in courts.

Article 274 sets the procedure for constitutional amendment: a bill must pass both Houses by a two-thirds majority; matters of provincial boundaries need consent of the affected provincial assembly.

Emergency powers are in Part 18 (Articles 271-273); a proclamation of emergency must be approved by the House of Representatives within one month.

Nepal follows a civil law tradition; the Muluki Civil Code 2074 and Muluki Criminal Code 2074 replaced the Muluki Ain of 1910 and took effect on 17 August 2018 (1 Bhadra 2075).

The court hierarchy is Supreme Court, High Courts (one per province), District Courts, and local judicial committees for mediation of certain disputes.

The Supreme Court has original writ jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction; it may issue habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto (Article 133).

Judicial precedents of the Supreme Court bind all courts below (Article 128(4)); the Supreme Court may review its own decisions.

The Judicial Council (Article 153) recommends appointments, transfers and disciplinary actions for judges.

The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor to the Government of Nepal and appears for the government in the Supreme Court (Articles 157-158).

The Nepal Law Commission drafts and revises legislation; the Federal Parliament consists of the House of Representatives (275 members) and the National Assembly (59 members).

The statute of limitations under the Criminal Code generally bars prosecution of offences carrying up to three years' imprisonment after one year from the offence date, subject to exceptions.

Nepal Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police (IGP); ranks below IGP are Additional IGP, Deputy IGP, Senior Superintendent (SSP), Superintendent (SP), Deputy Superintendent (DSP), Inspector, Sub-Inspector (SI), Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI), Head Constable, Constable and Police Trainee.

The Police Act 2012 (1955) and Police Regulations 2071 govern organisation, discipline and duties; the Nepal Police Act 2074 (2018) is the current framework law.

The IGP is appointed by the Government of Nepal on the recommendation of a committee and serves a fixed term; the Ministry of Home Affairs exercises administrative oversight.

Nepal Police has metropolitan police ranges, provincial police offices in all 7 provinces, and district police offices in 77 districts.

Specialised units include the Central Investigation Bureau (CIB), Metropolitan Police Crime Division, Armed Police Force (a separate force under the Ministry of Home Affairs), and the National Investigation Department (under the Prime Minister's Office).

The Police Training Academy at Maharajgunj and the National Police Academy provide basic and in-service training; recruit constables complete approximately six months of basic training.

Community policing programmes include Community Police Partnership, Child-Friendly Police, and Women and Children Service Centres in district police offices.

The chain of command runs from the IGP through provincial police chiefs to district chiefs; local units coordinate with ward police under federal law.

Under the Muluki Criminal Code 2074, offences are classified by punishment: offences with up to 3 years' imprisonment, 3-10 years, and over 10 years, with different limitation and bail rules.

The Criminal Procedure Code 2074 (2017) governs investigation, arrest, bail, trial and appeal; it requires a person arrested to be produced before a court within 24 hours, excluding travel time (Article 35 of the Constitution).

Bail (dharauni) is generally a right for offences punishable by up to 3 years; for graver offences the court decides on bail considering flight risk and evidence tampering.

A First Information Report (jaharī) starts investigation; police must register it and give the informant a receipt, and may not refuse to register a cognizable offence.

The Public Prosecutor's Office decides whether to file a charge-sheet (abhiyog patra); the police must complete investigation within 25 days, extendable by the court.

Evidence law follows the Muluki Civil Procedure Code and the Evidence Act 2031; confessions to police are not admissible, but confessions before a court or judicial authority may be recorded.

The Criminal Code sets penalties including imprisonment, fine, forfeiture and compensation to victims; life imprisonment means imprisonment for 20 years or until death, as specified.

Juvenile justice is governed by the Juvenile Justice Act 2075; children under 10 cannot be held criminally liable, and 10-18 year-olds are handled by juvenile benches.

Nepal's civil service is regulated by the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993); the Public Service Commission conducts open competitive examinations for entry.

The Local Government Operation Act 2074 assigns 22 exclusive and 15 concurrent functions to local units, including basic health, basic education, local roads and land revenue collection.

Good governance principles include rule of law, accountability, transparency, participation, responsiveness and efficiency; Nepal's Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act 2064 codifies these.

The Right to Information Act 2064 requires public bodies to appoint an information officer and respond to requests within 15 days.

The National Vigilance Centre and the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority are the main anti-corruption bodies; the CIAA may investigate and prosecute but not adjudicate.

Federalism devolves power to 7 provinces and 753 local units; the Inter-Provincial Council chaired by the Prime Minister resolves federal-provincial disputes.

Performance management uses annual performance agreements and the Public Service Commission's promotion criteria based on seniority, performance appraisal and examination.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subjects take singular verbs; collective nouns (team, committee) take singular verbs when acting as a unit, plural when members act individually.

Tenses: present perfect (has/have + past participle) links past action to present; past perfect (had + past participle) marks the earlier of two past actions.

Passive voice: object becomes subject + be + past participle + by-agent; only transitive verbs can be made passive.

Conditionals: first (if + present, will + base), second (if + past, would + base), third (if + past perfect, would have + past participle).

Articles: 'a/an' for indefinite, 'the' for definite or unique referents; no article with uncountable nouns used generally.

Prepositions of time: in (months, years, seasons), on (days, dates), at (clock times); 'since' with a point in time, 'for' with a duration.

Direct to indirect speech: shift tense back one step, change pronouns and time words (now -> then, today -> that day, tomorrow -> the next day).

Common error traps: 'one of the + plural noun + singular verb', 'each/every + singular noun', and 'neither...nor' takes the verb of the nearer subject.

नेपाली वर्णमालामा ११ स्वर र ३३ व्यञ्जन गरी ४४ वर्ण हुन्छन्; स्वरहरू अ, आ, इ, ई, उ, ऊ, ऋ, ए, ऐ, ओ, औ हुन्।

लिङ्ग: पुलिङ्ग र स्त्रीलिङ्ग; स्त्रीलिङ्गमा 'ा' वा 'ी' जोडिन्छ (छोरा-छोरी, केटा-केटी), तर केही अपवाद छन् (राजा-रानी)।

वचन: एकवचन र बहुवचन; बहुवचन जनाउन 'हरू' प्रत्यय वा क्रियारूपबाट (केटा आयो / केटाहरू आए)।

कारक र विभक्ति: कर्ता (ले), कर्म (लाई), करण (ले/द्वारा), सम्प्रदान (लाई), अपादान (बाट), सम्बन्ध (को/का/की), अधिकरण (मा/भित्र)।

काल: वर्तमान, भूत, भविष्यत्; पक्ष: सामान्य, अपूर्ण, पूर्ण (गर्छ, गर्दैछ, गरिसक्यो)।

वाक्य संरचना: कर्ता + कर्म + क्रिया (SOV) नेपालीको सामान्य क्रम हो; विशेषण विशेष्यभन्दा अगाडि आउँछ।

पदवर्ग: नाम, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रियायोगी, क्रिया, नामयोगी, संयोजक, विस्मयादिबोधक, निपात।

शब्दभण्डार: तत्सम (संस्कृतबाट), तद्भव (परिवर्तित), आगन्तुक (अन्य भाषाबाट) र देशज शब्दहरू।

Percentage change = (new - old) / old x 100; successive percentage changes of a% and b% give net change a + b + ab/100.

Simple interest = P x R x T / 100; compound interest = P[(1 + R/100)^T - 1].

Profit and loss: profit% = (SP - CP)/CP x 100; when a discount d% is given, SP = MP(1 - d/100).

Speed, time and distance: distance = speed x time; for two trains crossing, relative speed adds for opposite directions and subtracts for same direction.

Ratio and proportion: if a:b = c:d then ad = bc; to divide N in ratio a:b:c, shares are N x a/(a+b+c) etc.

Average = sum of observations / number of observations; if each value is increased by k, the average increases by k.

Permutation and combination: nPr = n!/(n-r)!; nCr = n!/[r!(n-r)!]; nC0 = nCn = 1.

Work and time: if A does work in x days and B in y days, together they take xy/(x+y) days; work rate is 1/x per day.

Number system: divisibility by 3 or 9 if digit sum is divisible; by 4 if last two digits are divisible; by 11 if alternating digit-sum difference is divisible by 11.

Newton's laws: F = ma; every action has an equal and opposite reaction; a body stays at rest or uniform motion unless acted on by a net force.

Ohm's law: V = IR; power P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R; resistors in series add, in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2.

The human body has 206 bones in adults, 32 teeth, and blood pH around 7.35-7.45; the largest organ is the skin.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2, occurring in chloroplasts with chlorophyll.

The periodic table orders elements by atomic number; group 1 are alkali metals, group 17 halogens, group 18 noble gases.

Diseases: malaria is caused by Plasmodium and spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes; dengue by the Aedes aegypti mosquito; tuberculosis by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

SI units: length metre, mass kilogram, time second, current ampere, temperature kelvin, amount mole, luminous intensity candela.

Acids turn blue litmus red, bases turn red litmus blue; pH below 7 is acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic.

Nepal's total fertility rate is around 2.0 and life expectancy around 70 years; infant mortality has declined substantially since 2000.

The Ministry of Health and Population delivers services through federal hospitals, 7 provincial health directorates, district health offices and 753 local health units.

The Health Insurance Board (established 2016) provides subsidised insurance with a family premium of NPR 3,500 and coverage up to NPR 100,000 per year.

Major environmental laws: Environment Protection Act 2076 and Regulation 2077 require Initial Environmental Examination or Environmental Impact Assessment for prescribed projects.

Protected areas cover roughly 23% of Nepal's land; there are 12 national parks, 1 wildlife reserve, 6 conservation areas and 10 Ramsar sites.

Air quality is measured by PM2.5 and PM10; Kathmandu's winter pollution is driven by vehicular emissions, brick kilns and temperature inversion.

Climate change adaptation is guided by the National Adaptation Plan (2021-2050); Nepal aims for net-zero emissions by 2045.

Solid waste management is a local government function under the Local Government Operation Act; the Solid Waste Management Act 2068 provides the framework.

The National Human Rights Commission is a constitutional body under Article 249; it may inquire into violations, recommend action and monitor treaties.

Nepal ratified the ICCPR and ICESCR in 1991, CEDAW in 1991, CRC in 1990, CAT in 1991 and the CRPD in 2010.

Article 16 guarantees the right to live with dignity; Article 17 guarantees freedom of expression; Article 18 equality; Article 20 rights of the accused; Article 22 rights of the child.

The right against torture is absolute under Article 22(1) and the Torture Compensation Act 2053 provides compensation to victims.

The Human Rights Treaty Monitoring Coordination Committee coordinates civil society reporting to UN treaty bodies.

Nepal underwent a Universal Periodic Review in 2011, 2015, 2021; recommendations cover transitional justice, caste discrimination and disability rights.

The Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission were set up in 2015 to address conflict-era violations.

Article 38 of the Constitution guarantees women's rights, including equal lineage rights and protection against violence; Article 42 covers social justice.

The Constitution requires at least 33% women in the House of Representatives and provincial assemblies through proportional representation, and one woman among the President or Vice-President.

The Civil Service Act requires 45% reservation in recruitment for women, indigenous nationalities, Madhesi, Dalit, persons with disabilities and backward regions.

The Gender Empowerment Measure and Gender Inequality Index track disparities; Nepal's GII remains high due to low female labour force participation.

The Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act 2066 criminalises domestic violence and provides for protection orders and interim relief.

The Sexual Harassment (Elimination) Act 2071 requires every workplace to form a complaint committee and display its contact details.

The National Strategy and Action Plan on Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) mainstreams inclusion across federal, provincial and local plans.

The Dalit community faces caste-based discrimination, prohibited by Article 24 and the Caste-Based Discrimination and Untouchability (Offence and Punishment) Act 2068.

Nepal's federal structure has 7 provinces, 77 districts and 753 local units (6 metropolitan cities, 11 sub-metropolitan cities, 276 municipalities, 460 rural municipalities).

Nepal became a federal democratic republic on 28 May 2008, the date the first Constituent Assembly declared the monarchy abolished.

The Constitution of Nepal was promulgated on 20 September 2015 (3 Ashoj 2072 BS) by the second Constituent Assembly.

Nepal's area is 147,516 sq km; it borders China (Tibet) to the north and India to the east, west and south; the highest point is Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha) at 8,848.86 m.

Nepal is the 2nd largest contributor to UN peacekeeping among troop-contributing countries per capita and has served in missions since 1958.

SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985; its permanent secretariat is in Kathmandu.

Nepal joined the World Trade Organization on 23 April 2004 and the United Nations on 14 December 1955.

The National Planning Commission prepares periodic plans; Nepal's 16th Plan period runs from FY 2081/82 (2024/25) to 2085/86.

Key constitutional bodies: Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority, Office of the Auditor General, Public Service Commission, Election Commission, National Human Rights Commission, National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015 has 35 Parts, 308 Articles and 9 Schedules.

Article 4 defines Nepal as an independent, indivisible, sovereign, secular, inclusive, democratic, socialism-oriented federal democratic republican state.

Fundamental rights are in Part 3 (Articles 16-46); the right to constitutional remedy under Article 46 allows a writ petition in the Supreme Court for enforcement.

Article 27 guarantees the right to information; Article 28 guarantees the right to privacy.

Citizenship provisions are in Part 2 (Articles 10-15); Article 11 sets out citizenship by descent, birth, naturalisation and honorary citizenship.

The President is elected by an electoral college of federal and provincial parliament members; the President appoints the Prime Minister who must command a majority in the House of Representatives (Article 76).

Directive Principles, Policies and Obligations of the State are in Part 4 (Articles 49-54) and are non-justiciable in courts.

Article 274 sets the procedure for constitutional amendment: a bill must pass both Houses by a two-thirds majority; matters of provincial boundaries need consent of the affected provincial assembly.

Emergency powers are in Part 18 (Articles 271-273); a proclamation of emergency must be approved by the House of Representatives within one month.

Nepal follows a civil law tradition; the Muluki Civil Code 2074 and Muluki Criminal Code 2074 replaced the Muluki Ain of 1910 and took effect on 17 August 2018 (1 Bhadra 2075).

The court hierarchy is Supreme Court, High Courts (one per province), District Courts, and local judicial committees for mediation of certain disputes.

The Supreme Court has original writ jurisdiction and appellate jurisdiction; it may issue habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto (Article 133).

Judicial precedents of the Supreme Court bind all courts below (Article 128(4)); the Supreme Court may review its own decisions.

The Judicial Council (Article 153) recommends appointments, transfers and disciplinary actions for judges.

The Attorney General is the chief legal advisor to the Government of Nepal and appears for the government in the Supreme Court (Articles 157-158).

The Nepal Law Commission drafts and revises legislation; the Federal Parliament consists of the House of Representatives (275 members) and the National Assembly (59 members).

The statute of limitations under the Criminal Code generally bars prosecution of offences carrying up to three years' imprisonment after one year from the offence date, subject to exceptions.

Nepal Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police (IGP); ranks below IGP are Additional IGP, Deputy IGP, Senior Superintendent (SSP), Superintendent (SP), Deputy Superintendent (DSP), Inspector, Sub-Inspector (SI), Assistant Sub-Inspector (ASI), Head Constable, Constable and Police Trainee.

The Police Act 2012 (1955) and Police Regulations 2071 govern organisation, discipline and duties; the Nepal Police Act 2074 (2018) is the current framework law.

The IGP is appointed by the Government of Nepal on the recommendation of a committee and serves a fixed term; the Ministry of Home Affairs exercises administrative oversight.

Nepal Police has metropolitan police ranges, provincial police offices in all 7 provinces, and district police offices in 77 districts.

Specialised units include the Central Investigation Bureau (CIB), Metropolitan Police Crime Division, Armed Police Force (a separate force under the Ministry of Home Affairs), and the National Investigation Department (under the Prime Minister's Office).

The Police Training Academy at Maharajgunj and the National Police Academy provide basic and in-service training; recruit constables complete approximately six months of basic training.

Community policing programmes include Community Police Partnership, Child-Friendly Police, and Women and Children Service Centres in district police offices.

The chain of command runs from the IGP through provincial police chiefs to district chiefs; local units coordinate with ward police under federal law.

Under the Muluki Criminal Code 2074, offences are classified by punishment: offences with up to 3 years' imprisonment, 3-10 years, and over 10 years, with different limitation and bail rules.

The Criminal Procedure Code 2074 (2017) governs investigation, arrest, bail, trial and appeal; it requires a person arrested to be produced before a court within 24 hours, excluding travel time (Article 35 of the Constitution).

Bail (dharauni) is generally a right for offences punishable by up to 3 years; for graver offences the court decides on bail considering flight risk and evidence tampering.

A First Information Report (jaharī) starts investigation; police must register it and give the informant a receipt, and may not refuse to register a cognizable offence.

The Public Prosecutor's Office decides whether to file a charge-sheet (abhiyog patra); the police must complete investigation within 25 days, extendable by the court.

Evidence law follows the Muluki Civil Procedure Code and the Evidence Act 2031; confessions to police are not admissible, but confessions before a court or judicial authority may be recorded.

The Criminal Code sets penalties including imprisonment, fine, forfeiture and compensation to victims; life imprisonment means imprisonment for 20 years or until death, as specified.

Juvenile justice is governed by the Juvenile Justice Act 2075; children under 10 cannot be held criminally liable, and 10-18 year-olds are handled by juvenile benches.

Nepal's civil service is regulated by the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993); the Public Service Commission conducts open competitive examinations for entry.

The Local Government Operation Act 2074 assigns 22 exclusive and 15 concurrent functions to local units, including basic health, basic education, local roads and land revenue collection.

Good governance principles include rule of law, accountability, transparency, participation, responsiveness and efficiency; Nepal's Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act 2064 codifies these.

The Right to Information Act 2064 requires public bodies to appoint an information officer and respond to requests within 15 days.

The National Vigilance Centre and the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority are the main anti-corruption bodies; the CIAA may investigate and prosecute but not adjudicate.

Federalism devolves power to 7 provinces and 753 local units; the Inter-Provincial Council chaired by the Prime Minister resolves federal-provincial disputes.

Performance management uses annual performance agreements and the Public Service Commission's promotion criteria based on seniority, performance appraisal and examination.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subjects take singular verbs; collective nouns (team, committee) take singular verbs when acting as a unit, plural when members act individually.

Tenses: present perfect (has/have + past participle) links past action to present; past perfect (had + past participle) marks the earlier of two past actions.

Passive voice: object becomes subject + be + past participle + by-agent; only transitive verbs can be made passive.

Conditionals: first (if + present, will + base), second (if + past, would + base), third (if + past perfect, would have + past participle).

Articles: 'a/an' for indefinite, 'the' for definite or unique referents; no article with uncountable nouns used generally.

Prepositions of time: in (months, years, seasons), on (days, dates), at (clock times); 'since' with a point in time, 'for' with a duration.

Direct to indirect speech: shift tense back one step, change pronouns and time words (now -> then, today -> that day, tomorrow -> the next day).

Common error traps: 'one of the + plural noun + singular verb', 'each/every + singular noun', and 'neither...nor' takes the verb of the nearer subject.

नेपाली वर्णमालामा ११ स्वर र ३३ व्यञ्जन गरी ४४ वर्ण हुन्छन्; स्वरहरू अ, आ, इ, ई, उ, ऊ, ऋ, ए, ऐ, ओ, औ हुन्।

लिङ्ग: पुलिङ्ग र स्त्रीलिङ्ग; स्त्रीलिङ्गमा 'ा' वा 'ी' जोडिन्छ (छोरा-छोरी, केटा-केटी), तर केही अपवाद छन् (राजा-रानी)।

वचन: एकवचन र बहुवचन; बहुवचन जनाउन 'हरू' प्रत्यय वा क्रियारूपबाट (केटा आयो / केटाहरू आए)।

कारक र विभक्ति: कर्ता (ले), कर्म (लाई), करण (ले/द्वारा), सम्प्रदान (लाई), अपादान (बाट), सम्बन्ध (को/का/की), अधिकरण (मा/भित्र)।

काल: वर्तमान, भूत, भविष्यत्; पक्ष: सामान्य, अपूर्ण, पूर्ण (गर्छ, गर्दैछ, गरिसक्यो)।

वाक्य संरचना: कर्ता + कर्म + क्रिया (SOV) नेपालीको सामान्य क्रम हो; विशेषण विशेष्यभन्दा अगाडि आउँछ।

पदवर्ग: नाम, सर्वनाम, विशेषण, क्रियायोगी, क्रिया, नामयोगी, संयोजक, विस्मयादिबोधक, निपात।

शब्दभण्डार: तत्सम (संस्कृतबाट), तद्भव (परिवर्तित), आगन्तुक (अन्य भाषाबाट) र देशज शब्दहरू।

Percentage change = (new - old) / old x 100; successive percentage changes of a% and b% give net change a + b + ab/100.

Simple interest = P x R x T / 100; compound interest = P[(1 + R/100)^T - 1].

Profit and loss: profit% = (SP - CP)/CP x 100; when a discount d% is given, SP = MP(1 - d/100).

Speed, time and distance: distance = speed x time; for two trains crossing, relative speed adds for opposite directions and subtracts for same direction.

Ratio and proportion: if a:b = c:d then ad = bc; to divide N in ratio a:b:c, shares are N x a/(a+b+c) etc.

Average = sum of observations / number of observations; if each value is increased by k, the average increases by k.

Permutation and combination: nPr = n!/(n-r)!; nCr = n!/[r!(n-r)!]; nC0 = nCn = 1.

Work and time: if A does work in x days and B in y days, together they take xy/(x+y) days; work rate is 1/x per day.

Number system: divisibility by 3 or 9 if digit sum is divisible; by 4 if last two digits are divisible; by 11 if alternating digit-sum difference is divisible by 11.

Newton's laws: F = ma; every action has an equal and opposite reaction; a body stays at rest or uniform motion unless acted on by a net force.

Ohm's law: V = IR; power P = VI = I^2R = V^2/R; resistors in series add, in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2.

The human body has 206 bones in adults, 32 teeth, and blood pH around 7.35-7.45; the largest organ is the skin.

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + light -> C6H12O6 + 6O2, occurring in chloroplasts with chlorophyll.

The periodic table orders elements by atomic number; group 1 are alkali metals, group 17 halogens, group 18 noble gases.

Diseases: malaria is caused by Plasmodium and spread by female Anopheles mosquitoes; dengue by the Aedes aegypti mosquito; tuberculosis by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

SI units: length metre, mass kilogram, time second, current ampere, temperature kelvin, amount mole, luminous intensity candela.

Acids turn blue litmus red, bases turn red litmus blue; pH below 7 is acidic, 7 neutral, above 7 basic.

Nepal's total fertility rate is around 2.0 and life expectancy around 70 years; infant mortality has declined substantially since 2000.

The Ministry of Health and Population delivers services through federal hospitals, 7 provincial health directorates, district health offices and 753 local health units.

The Health Insurance Board (established 2016) provides subsidised insurance with a family premium of NPR 3,500 and coverage up to NPR 100,000 per year.

Major environmental laws: Environment Protection Act 2076 and Regulation 2077 require Initial Environmental Examination or Environmental Impact Assessment for prescribed projects.

Protected areas cover roughly 23% of Nepal's land; there are 12 national parks, 1 wildlife reserve, 6 conservation areas and 10 Ramsar sites.

Air quality is measured by PM2.5 and PM10; Kathmandu's winter pollution is driven by vehicular emissions, brick kilns and temperature inversion.

Climate change adaptation is guided by the National Adaptation Plan (2021-2050); Nepal aims for net-zero emissions by 2045.

Solid waste management is a local government function under the Local Government Operation Act; the Solid Waste Management Act 2068 provides the framework.

The National Human Rights Commission is a constitutional body under Article 249; it may inquire into violations, recommend action and monitor treaties.

Nepal ratified the ICCPR and ICESCR in 1991, CEDAW in 1991, CRC in 1990, CAT in 1991 and the CRPD in 2010.

Article 16 guarantees the right to live with dignity; Article 17 guarantees freedom of expression; Article 18 equality; Article 20 rights of the accused; Article 22 rights of the child.

The right against torture is absolute under Article 22(1) and the Torture Compensation Act 2053 provides compensation to victims.

The Human Rights Treaty Monitoring Coordination Committee coordinates civil society reporting to UN treaty bodies.

Nepal underwent a Universal Periodic Review in 2011, 2015, 2021; recommendations cover transitional justice, caste discrimination and disability rights.

The Commission of Investigation on Enforced Disappeared Persons and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission were set up in 2015 to address conflict-era violations.

Article 38 of the Constitution guarantees women's rights, including equal lineage rights and protection against violence; Article 42 covers social justice.

The Constitution requires at least 33% women in the House of Representatives and provincial assemblies through proportional representation, and one woman among the President or Vice-President.

The Civil Service Act requires 45% reservation in recruitment for women, indigenous nationalities, Madhesi, Dalit, persons with disabilities and backward regions.

The Gender Empowerment Measure and Gender Inequality Index track disparities; Nepal's GII remains high due to low female labour force participation.

The Domestic Violence (Offence and Punishment) Act 2066 criminalises domestic violence and provides for protection orders and interim relief.

The Sexual Harassment (Elimination) Act 2071 requires every workplace to form a complaint committee and display its contact details.

The National Strategy and Action Plan on Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) mainstreams inclusion across federal, provincial and local plans.

The Dalit community faces caste-based discrimination, prohibited by Article 24 and the Caste-Based Discrimination and Untouchability (Offence and Punishment) Act 2068.