NYS ELA cheat sheet

Theme is the message about life or human nature that a text conveys; it must be stated as a full sentence, not a single word like "friendship."

Central idea applies to informational texts: it is the main point the whole passage supports, stated in a sentence and backed by the most repeated or emphasized details.

A summary condenses a text objectively, includes the central idea and key supporting details, and excludes personal opinion, minor examples, and new information.

Characterization: direct characterization states a trait outright; indirect characterization reveals it through speech, thoughts, effect on others, actions, and looks.

Point of view: first person uses I/we; third-person limited stays inside one character's perceptions; third-person omniscient reports multiple characters' inner thoughts.

Text structure in informational texts: cause-effect, compare-contrast, problem-solution, chronological, and description; identifying the structure signals where key details sit.

An inference is a conclusion drawn from textual evidence plus background knowledge; a valid inference must be traceable to specific words in the passage.

Word meaning in context: a word's connotation (positive, negative, neutral) can change tone even when denotation stays the same; replace the word with a synonym to test fit.

Figurative language: simile uses like/as, metaphor states one thing is another, personification gives human traits to nonhuman things, hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration.

An argumentative essay needs a precise claim, reasons supported by relevant evidence, acknowledgment of a counterclaim, and a rebuttal or concession.

An explanatory essay states a topic, organizes relevant facts and definitions logically, and uses transitions that show relationships between ideas.

Narrative writing establishes a context and point of view, uses dialogue and pacing, and ends with a reflection or resolution rather than a summary of events.

A sentence fragment lacks a subject, a predicate, or a complete thought; a run-on joins two independent clauses with no punctuation or only a comma (comma splice).

Fix a comma splice with a period, a semicolon, a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), or by subordinating one clause.

Subject-verb agreement: ignore interrupting prepositional phrases; indefinite pronouns like each, everyone, and neither take singular verbs, while both and many take plural.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: a pronoun must match its antecedent in number and gender, and its reference must be clear when two possible nouns precede it.

Punctuation: a colon follows a complete clause to introduce a list or explanation; a semicolon joins related independent clauses; dashes set off abrupt parenthetical material.

Verb tense consistency: keep the tense sequence logical within a passage, shifting only when the time frame actually changes; avoid unnecessary shifts between past and present.