NYSTCE Cantonese (120) key terms

A learner's first language, acquired naturally in early childhood and used as the foundation for later language learning. In bilingual assessment it is the language a student may still prefer for reasoning or self-expression.

Any language learned after the first language, whether in school, at home, or in the community. Proficiency in L2 depends on exposure, instruction, and opportunity to use it, not on intelligence.

Acquisition of two languages at the same time from infancy or very early childhood. Such learners often develop native-like pronunciation and fluid control of both languages across everyday contexts.

Learning a second language after a first language is already established, typically after age three. School-age newcomers are usually sequential bilinguals, and their L2 develops through instruction and interaction.

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills: conversational fluency used in social, context-rich situations. Students often sound fluent in BICS within a couple of years, which can mask limited academic language proficiency.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency: the language needed to understand and produce school content, including abstract vocabulary and complex syntax. It typically takes five to seven years to develop and must be considered in assessment.

The vocabulary, sentence structures, and discourse patterns used to teach and test subject matter, such as compare-and-contrast or cause-and-effect language. It differs from everyday speech and must be taught explicitly.

An approach in which the first language is maintained and valued while a second language is added. Strong L1 skills support L2 development and positive identity, unlike subtractive programs that replace the home language.

A situation in which learning a second language comes at the cost of losing or devaluing the first. It is associated with lowered self-esteem and weaker academic outcomes and is avoided in sound bilingual programs.

The practice of drawing on a learner's full linguistic repertoire, moving between languages to make meaning. It is treated as a resource in instruction and can inform how assessment tasks are designed.

Alternating between two languages within a conversation or sentence. It follows systematic rules and is not a sign of confusion; assessors should distinguish normal switching from actual language errors.

The influence of one language on another, which can be positive or negative. Cantonese speakers may omit English articles or plural endings because Cantonese does not mark them the same way.

Negative transfer in which a first-language pattern produces an error in the second language, such as word order or tense usage. Identifying interference helps assessors separate language difference from disability.

Comparing two languages' sound, grammar, and discourse systems to predict where learners will struggle. For Cantonese and English it highlights articles, consonant clusters, tense marking, and plural inflection.

The sound system of a language, including which sounds contrast and how they combine. Cantonese has six tones and lacks English consonant clusters, which shapes pronunciation errors in English.

A pitch pattern that distinguishes word meaning, as in Cantonese, where the same syllable carries different meanings at different tones. Tone errors change meaning, unlike English intonation differences.

A romanization system for Cantonese developed by the Linguistic Society of Hong Kong, using letters and tone numbers. It is useful for recording pronunciation and for assessing Cantonese reading and writing skills.

Two words that differ by a single sound and have different meanings, such as ship and sheep. Minimal pairs help assessors test whether a student perceives and produces English vowel contrasts.

The ability to notice and manipulate individual sounds in spoken words, such as blending or segmenting. It is a predictor of reading success and can develop in either language, transferring across languages.

Instruction that teaches the relationship between letters and sounds to decode words. English and Cantonese writing systems differ, so assessors check whether decoding skills transfer or need separate support.

Translating printed letters or characters into spoken words. English decoding relies on letter-sound rules, while Cantonese reading requires character recognition and knowledge of pronunciation.

Identifying written Chinese characters and their meanings and pronunciations. It is central to Cantonese literacy and should be assessed separately from English word reading in bilingual students.

The ability to understand and speak a language, covering vocabulary, grammar, fluency, and pronunciation. It is often assessed through structured conversation, picture description, and story retelling rather than written tests.

The ability to understand spoken or written language, including following directions and comprehending questions. It usually develops before expressive language and should be assessed with tasks that do not require a spoken answer.

The ability to produce language through speaking or writing, including vocabulary retrieval, grammar, and organization. Assessment may use picture naming, sentence repetition, and narrative samples.

Evaluating a student's language by having them tell or retell a story. It reveals grammar, vocabulary, sequencing, and cohesion in a natural context and can be done in Cantonese and English.

A recorded collection of a student's spontaneous speech, later analyzed for mean length of utterance, vocabulary diversity, and error patterns. It offers evidence beyond standardized test scores.

An assessment administered and scored the same way for all students and compared to a norm group. Results must be interpreted cautiously when the test was normed on monolingual English speakers.

Scoring that compares a student's performance to that of a norming sample, often reported as percentiles or standard scores. A bilingual student may score low for language reasons rather than low ability.

Assessment that measures performance against specific learning standards rather than against other students. It is often fairer for bilingual learners because it shows what they can do.

Systematic error in an assessment that disadvantages a group because of cultural content, language demands, or norming. Reviewing items for cultural familiarity and linguistic load helps reduce bias.

Test content that assumes knowledge or experiences more common in one cultural group, such as Thanksgiving or baseball. It can depress scores for students unfamiliar with those references.

The language in which a student is currently stronger or more comfortable. It can vary by domain and setting, so assessors gather data in both languages before deciding which to test in.

A formal evaluation of a student's listening, speaking, reading, and writing in a language. Results guide placement, instructional planning, and decisions about testing accommodations.

Temporary supports such as visuals, sentence frames, and modeling that help students access content. Supports are gradually removed as learners gain independence, and they apply in both languages.

Teaching grade-level content in English with planned language supports so multilingual learners can understand and participate. Strategies include clear objectives, visuals, and structured interaction.

Instruction that recognizes and uses students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds as resources. It builds engagement and makes assessment tasks more valid for Cantonese-speaking learners.

Ongoing checks during instruction that show what students understand and where support is needed. It is low-stakes, language-sensitive, and can be conducted in either language.