ORELA ELA (NT319) cheat sheet

Main idea = the claim the whole passage supports; a supporting detail can be true yet not be the main idea, so test each option by asking whether the entire text is needed to support it.

Text structure signals: chronological (then, after, finally), cause-effect (because, therefore, as a result), compare-contrast (however, similarly, unlike), problem-solution (issue, remedy, should).

Inference must be logically forced by textual evidence; an option that is merely plausible, or that requires outside knowledge, is not a valid inference.

Vocabulary in context: substitute each answer choice into the sentence and check that the surrounding syntax and tone still work; connotation (positive, negative, neutral) often decides between near-synonyms.

Author's purpose verbs map to text types: inform/explain (expository), persuade (argument), entertain/narrate (narrative), describe (descriptive); purpose refers to the whole passage, not one sentence.

Tone is conveyed through diction, imagery, and punctuation; sarcasm and irony are marked by a gap between literal wording and implied attitude.

Summary rules: a summary omits examples and minor details, preserves the author's stance, and contains no new information or personal opinion.

Paired passages: identify the relationship first (agree, qualify, contradict, extend), then locate the specific point of divergence rather than assuming total opposition.

Sequence and reference questions: pronoun antecedents must agree in number and gender and make sense in context; the nearest noun is not automatically the referent.

Comma splice = two independent clauses joined only by a comma; fix with a period, semicolon, coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), or subordination.

Nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses and appositives take paired commas; essential (restrictive) clauses take none, and that is preferred for restrictive clauses while which usually introduces nonrestrictive ones.

Semicolon joins two independent clauses or separates items that already contain commas; a colon must follow an independent clause and introduces a list, explanation, or quotation.

Subject-verb agreement: locate the true subject by deleting prepositional phrases and parentheticals; indefinite pronouns (each, everyone, nobody) are singular, while both, few, many, several are plural.

Pronoun case: subject pronouns (I, he, she, they, who) for subjects and after linking verbs in formal prose; object pronouns (me, him, her, them, whom) for objects and after prepositions.

Dangling or misplaced modifiers: an introductory participial phrase must describe the noun immediately following the comma.

Parallel structure: items joined by and, or, but, or in a series must share grammatical form (all nouns, all gerunds, all infinitives).

Verb tense consistency: keep the narrative tense unless a time shift is signaled; past perfect (had + participle) marks the earlier of two past events.

Punctuation of quotations: commas and periods go inside closing quotation marks in standard American usage; semicolons and colons go outside.

Plot arc: exposition, inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution; the climax is the point of highest tension or irreversible choice, not necessarily the most action.

Conflict types: person vs. person, self, nature, society, fate; internal conflict is psychological and often drives theme.

Point of view: first person (I), second person (you), third limited (one character's interiority), third omniscient (multiple minds), objective/dramatic (behavior only, no interiority).

Characterization: direct (stated by narrator) versus indirect (revealed through speech, action, appearance, others' reactions); round/flat and static/dynamic describe depth and change.

Figurative language: simile (like/as), metaphor (implied comparison), personification, hyperbole, understatement, synecdoche (part for whole), metonymy (associated object for concept).

Sound devices: alliteration (initial consonants), assonance (vowel rhyme), consonance (final consonants), onomatopoeia, meter, and rhyme scheme labeled with letters (abab, abcb).

Theme is a complete statement about the human condition implied by the whole work; a one-word topic such as love or ambition is not a theme.

Irony types: verbal (saying the opposite), situational (outcome contradicts expectation), dramatic (audience knows what a character does not).

Symbolism: an object carries meaning beyond itself and recurs; a symbol's meaning is supported by textual repetition rather than by the reader's free association.

Argument anatomy: claim (thesis), evidence (facts, statistics, examples, testimony), reasoning (warrant linking evidence to claim), and counterclaim with rebuttal.

Ethos = credibility of the speaker (credentials, fairness, shared values); pathos = appeal to emotion or values; logos = appeal to logic and evidence.

Logical fallacies to name: ad hominem, straw man, false dilemma, slippery slope, hasty generalization, circular reasoning, appeal to authority, bandwagon, post hoc.

Persuasive versus argumentative: persuasion may rely on emotion and selective framing; argumentation foregrounds verifiable evidence and addresses opposing views.

Evaluate evidence by relevance, sufficiency, currency, and source reliability; an anecdote illustrates but does not prove a general claim.

Rhetorical analysis structure: identify the rhetorical situation (speaker, audience, occasion, purpose), then analyze how diction, syntax, imagery, and structure serve that purpose.

Syntax as rhetoric: short sentences accelerate and assert; cumulative and periodic sentences build suspense or emphasis; parallelism creates rhythm and authority.

Bias detection: loaded diction, omission of counterevidence, unstated assumptions, and appeals to fear or flattery signal a slanted text.

Primary versus secondary sources: primary is firsthand (letters, data, eyewitness accounts); secondary interprets primary material (textbooks, reviews, analyses).

Five essential components of reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension.

Phonological awareness is the umbrella (syllables, onsets and rimes, rhyme); phonemic awareness is the narrow skill of isolating and manipulating individual phonemes.

The alphabetic principle: letters map to sounds; systematic, explicit phonics instruction outperforms incidental or embedded approaches for beginning and struggling readers.

Fluency has three dimensions: accuracy, rate, and prosody; repeated reading with modeling and feedback is the standard intervention.

Vocabulary tiers: Tier 1 everyday words, Tier 2 high-frequency academic words across domains (the priority for instruction), Tier 3 domain-specific terms.

Comprehension strategy set: predicting, questioning, visualizing, monitoring and clarifying, summarizing, and identifying text structure; gradual release (I do, we do, you do) moves responsibility to students.

Writing process stages: prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing; the writing workshop model pairs minilessons with sustained independent writing and conferring.

Assessment types: formative (ongoing, informs instruction), summative (end of unit), screening, diagnostic, and progress monitoring; running records and miscue analysis reveal reading behaviors.

Response to intervention uses a multitiered system: Tier 1 core instruction for all, Tier 2 targeted small-group support, Tier 3 intensive individualized intervention.