PERT Writing cheat sheet

Subject-verb agreement: singular subject takes singular verb (add -s in present tense); plural subject takes plural verb (no -s).

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: pronoun must match antecedent in number and gender; indefinite pronouns like everyone, each, neither are singular.

Who vs. whom: who is subject (who called?), whom is object (to whom, for whom).

Who vs. which vs. that: who for people, which for things (nonrestrictive), that for things (restrictive).

Lie vs. lay: lie (recline) is intransitive (no object); lay (put) is transitive (takes object).

Affect vs. effect: affect is usually a verb (to influence); effect is usually a noun (result).

Comparative vs. superlative: -er/more for two items; -est/most for three or more.

Dangling modifier: introductory phrase must modify the subject of the main clause; if not, revise.

Parallel structure: items in a list, series, or comparison must share the same grammatical form.

Independent clause: has subject and verb and expresses a complete thought; dependent clause: has subject and verb but cannot stand alone (often begins with subordinating conjunction).

Simple sentence: one independent clause; compound: two or more independent clauses joined by comma + coordinating conjunction or semicolon; complex: one independent + at least one dependent; compound-complex: two or more independent + at least one dependent.

Run-on (fused sentence): two independent clauses joined with no punctuation; comma splice: two independent clauses joined only by a comma.

Fix run-ons/comma splices by adding a period, semicolon, comma + coordinating conjunction, or subordinating conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS).

Subordinating conjunctions: because, although, since, when, if, while, etc.; they make a clause dependent.

Sentence fragment: missing subject, missing verb, or does not express a complete thought; often a dependent clause or phrase punctuated as a sentence.

Misplaced modifier: placed too far from the word it modifies; squinting modifier: could modify either preceding or following word.

Comma rules: separate items in a series, separate introductory elements, set off nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses, join independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, separate coordinate adjectives.

Do not use a comma to separate subject from verb or verb from object; do not use a comma between two independent clauses without a conjunction (comma splice).

Semicolon: joins two independent clauses without a conjunction; also separates items in a series when items contain commas.

Colon: introduces a list, explanation, or quotation after an independent clause; must follow a complete sentence.

Apostrophe: possessive singular add 's; possessive plural ending in s add only apostrophe; plural of letters/numbers add 's (e.g., 1990s, mind your p's and q's).

Quotation marks: periods and commas go inside closing quotation marks; semicolons and colons go outside; question marks and exclamation points go inside if part of quotation, outside if not.

Dash (-) sets off an abrupt break or emphatic parenthetical; hyphen joins compound words or divides words at line breaks.

Italics: titles of long works (books, movies, albums, newspapers), foreign words, emphasis; quotation marks: titles of short works (articles, poems, short stories, songs).

Parentheses: enclose supplemental information; do not use with other punctuation incorrectly; period goes inside if parenthetical is a complete sentence standing alone.

Paragraph unity: every sentence supports the main idea (topic sentence); remove irrelevant sentences.

Coherence: ideas flow logically; use transitions (however, therefore, for example, in addition, finally) to show relationships.

Topic sentence: states the main idea of a paragraph, usually first; supporting sentences provide evidence, examples, or explanation.

Essay structure: introduction with thesis, body paragraphs each with topic sentence and support, conclusion that restates thesis and summarizes.

Transitions: show addition (also, moreover), contrast (however, on the other hand), cause-effect (therefore, as a result), example (for instance), sequence (first, next, finally).

Development: support general statements with specific details, facts, examples, or statistics; avoid vague words (things, stuff, very).

Logical order: chronological, spatial, order of importance, or comparison-contrast; choose based on purpose.

Audience and purpose: adjust tone, word choice, and level of detail to suit intended readers and goal (persuade, inform, entertain).

Revising for organization: check that each paragraph has a clear focus and that paragraphs are arranged in a logical sequence.

Revision focuses on content, organization, and clarity; editing focuses on grammar, punctuation, and mechanics.

When revising, check thesis clarity, paragraph unity, adequate support, and logical transitions.

When editing, check subject-verb agreement, pronoun agreement, verb tense consistency, punctuation, and spelling.

Wordiness: cut redundant pairs (each and every, first and foremost), empty phrases (due to the fact that), and unnecessary qualifiers (very, really).

Active voice: subject performs action (The dog chased the ball); passive voice: subject receives action (The ball was chased by the dog); prefer active for clarity and directness.

Sentence variety: combine short choppy sentences and vary sentence beginnings to improve flow.

Tone consistency: maintain formal or informal tone throughout; avoid shifts in point of view (I, you, he/she) unless intentional.

Proofreading: read aloud, check for commonly confused words (their/there/they're, its/it's, to/too/two), and verify punctuation.

Clarity: place modifiers near the words they modify; avoid ambiguous pronoun references (e.g., he said to Bob that he...).