PNG Grade 10 English cheat sheet

Skimming reads for gist and structure; scanning locates specific details such as names, dates, and figures without reading every word.

Main idea = the controlling point the whole passage supports; a detail or topic word alone cannot serve as the main idea.

A valid inference must be supported by textual evidence plus general knowledge; unsupported guesses are not inferences.

Fact is verifiable and checkable; opinion expresses judgement, value, or belief and often carries evaluative adjectives.

Tone words describe the writer's attitude: critical, nostalgic, ironic, objective, sympathetic, sarcastic, cautious.

Cause-effect signal words: because, therefore, consequently, as a result, hence, thus, since, leads to.

Contrast signal words: however, although, nevertheless, whereas, despite, on the other hand, in contrast.

Author's purpose is usually to inform, persuade, entertain, or instruct; the verb chosen must match the whole text's aim.

Sequence questions follow chronology markers: first, then, meanwhile, subsequently, finally, before, after.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subject takes singular verb; ignore interrupting phrases such as 'along with the students'.

Neither/nor and either/or agree with the nearer subject: 'Neither the boys nor the teacher was ready.'

Present perfect (has/have + past participle) links past action to present; simple past marks a finished time: 'yesterday'.

Active voice: subject performs the action; passive voice: object becomes subject with be + past participle + by.

Relative pronouns: who for people, which for things, whose for possession, where for place, that for defining clauses.

Direct speech becomes reported speech with tense backshift: present to past, will to would, can to could.

Conditionals: zero (present + present), first (if + present, will), second (if + past, would), third (if + had, would have).

Apostrophes mark possession (the girl's book, the girls' books) or contraction (it's = it is); 'its' is possessive.

Parallel structure requires matching forms in a list: 'reading, writing, and speaking', not 'reading, writing, and to speak'.

Context clues: definition (is, means), example (such as, for instance), contrast (but, unlike), and inference from surrounding sentences.

Synonyms share meaning but differ in connotation and register: 'child' is neutral, 'kid' informal, 'offspring' formal.

Prefixes: un-, dis-, in-, im- (not); re- (again); pre- (before); sub- (under); anti- (against); mis- (wrongly).

Suffixes change word class: -tion/-ment make nouns, -ous/-ive make adjectives, -ly makes adverbs, -ify/-ise make verbs.

Homophones: their/there/they're, to/too/two, its/it's, principal/principle, stationary/stationery, advice/advise.

Denotation is the dictionary meaning; connotation is the emotional association, positive or negative.

Idioms are non-literal: 'bite the bullet' means endure something difficult, not literally chew metal.

Collocation is conventional word partnership: 'make a decision', 'do homework', 'heavy rain', 'strong coffee'.

A paragraph has one topic sentence, supporting sentences with evidence or examples, and a concluding or linking sentence.

Essay structure: introduction with thesis, body paragraphs each with one controlling idea, conclusion restating the thesis.

Cohesion uses reference words (this, these, such), repetition of key terms, and connectives (furthermore, therefore).

Formal writing avoids contractions, slang, first-person anecdote, and vague words such as 'things' or 'stuff'.

Persuasive techniques: rhetorical question, statistic, expert opinion, emotive language, anecdote, counter-argument and rebuttal.

Narrative structure follows orientation, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution, with consistent tense.

Editing checklist: sentence completeness, subject-verb agreement, tense consistency, punctuation, spelling, pronoun reference.

Summary writing keeps the source's main ideas in your own words and omits examples, repetition, and personal opinion.

Plot stages: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, resolution; conflict may be person vs person, self, society, or nature.

Characterisation is direct (stated by narrator) or indirect (revealed through speech, action, appearance, others' views).

Setting includes place, time, and social atmosphere; it can shape mood and symbolise theme.

Theme is the central idea about life conveyed by the whole text, stated as a full sentence, not one word.

Figurative devices: simile (like/as), metaphor (direct comparison), personification, hyperbole, oxymoron, symbol.

Sound devices: alliteration (initial consonants), assonance (vowel repetition), onomatopoeia (sound words), rhyme, rhythm.

Poetry forms: sonnet (14 lines), haiku (3 lines, 5-7-5 syllables), ballad (narrative stanzas), free verse (no fixed metre).

Irony types: verbal (saying the opposite), situational (outcome reverses expectation), dramatic (audience knows more than characters).

Quotation use: introduce the context, quote exactly with quotation marks, then explain how it supports the point.