PNG Grade 12 English key terms

A single sentence, usually near the start of an essay, that states the main claim the writer will defend. It guides the whole structure and is narrower than the topic itself.

The opening sentence of a body paragraph that announces the paragraph's central point. It links back to the thesis and signals what the following evidence will show.

The way sentences and paragraphs are joined so a text reads as one connected whole. It is achieved through linking words, pronoun reference, repetition of key terms, and logical ordering of ideas.

The quality that makes a text easy to follow because its ideas are arranged in a clear, logical order that matches the reader's expectations. It concerns overall meaning and organisation rather than surface links.

A word or phrase such as however, therefore, or in contrast that signals the relationship between ideas. Transitions guide readers through shifts in time, cause, comparison, or emphasis.

The practice of dividing writing into blocks, each developing one main idea. Effective paragraphing helps readers see the structure of an argument and where each new point begins.

A reasoned case in which a claim is supported by evidence and logical reasoning, often while addressing opposing views. In exam essays it must go beyond opinion to show why the position is justified.

An opposing view that a writer acknowledges and then answers. Including one strengthens a case by showing the writer has considered alternatives rather than ignoring them.

The part of an argument that explains why a counterargument is weak or limited. It may concede a point while showing that the main claim still holds.

Acknowledging that an opposing point has some validity before restating one's own position. It builds credibility and is often introduced with although, while, or admittedly.

Facts, examples, statistics, quotations, or expert views used to support a claim. In literary essays, evidence usually takes the form of short, accurately quoted passages from the text.

Embedding a quoted phrase or sentence smoothly into your own sentence so it reads grammatically and supports your point. It avoids dropping long quotes without introduction or comment.

The details given to show where a quotation or idea came from, such as author, title, and page or line number. Accurate citation lets a reader locate the source.

Presenting someone else's words or ideas as your own without proper acknowledgement. It includes copying text, paraphrasing too closely, and failing to cite a source.

Restating a passage in your own words while keeping its meaning, usually to clarify or shorten it. Unlike summary, it follows the original closely point by point.

A brief account of the main points of a text, leaving out detail and examples. A good summary is shorter than the original and uses your own wording.

The level of formality in language suited to a particular audience and situation. Formal essays avoid slang and contractions, while informal writing may use them freely.

The writer's attitude towards the subject or reader, conveyed through word choice and sentence style. It may be ironic, earnest, critical, sympathetic, or detached.

The feeling or atmosphere a text creates in the reader, produced by setting, imagery, and diction. Mood is the emotional effect, while tone is the writer's attitude.

A writer's choice of words, including their formality, connotation, and precision. Analysing diction means explaining why particular words were chosen and what effects they create.

The feelings and associations a word carries beyond its literal meaning. For example, cheap and affordable share a sense of low price but differ in attitude.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, separate from any emotional associations. Distinguishing denotation from connotation helps explain how word choice shapes meaning.

Language that departs from literal meaning to create a comparison or effect, including metaphor, simile, and personification. It invites readers to see one thing in terms of another.

A comparison in which one thing is described as if it were another, without using like or as. An extended metaphor sustains the comparison across several lines or a whole text.

A comparison using like or as, such as cheeks like roses. It makes an explicit link between two unlike things to highlight a shared quality.

Giving human qualities to a non-human thing, as in the wind whispered. It can create atmosphere or make abstract ideas concrete and vivid.

Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, helping readers see, hear, smell, taste, or feel what is described. Imagery often carries emotional weight and supports theme.

Using an object, person, or event to represent a larger idea beyond its literal role. A symbol gains meaning from how it is used and repeated within the text.

The central idea or insight about life that a text explores, such as the cost of ambition. A theme is stated as a full idea, not just a topic word.

The most important point of a passage or paragraph, often stated directly in a topic sentence. In reading questions, it is distinguished from supporting details.

A conclusion drawn from clues in the text rather than from an explicit statement. Inference questions ask what the writer implies but does not say directly.

A meaning suggested indirectly by a text rather than stated outright. Recognising implication requires attention to word choice, tone, and what is deliberately left unsaid.

Information in the surrounding words or sentences that helps a reader work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Clues may be definitions, examples, contrasts, or restatements.

The distinction between statements that can be verified and statements that express belief, feeling, or judgement. Recognising the difference is essential for evaluating persuasive texts.

A slant or prejudice in favour of or against something, shown through selection of detail, loaded words, or omission. Detecting bias helps readers judge how reliable a text is.

The reason a writer produced a text, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or instruct. Identifying purpose shapes how a reader interprets tone and structure.

The intended readers of a text, whose knowledge, expectations, and attitudes shape the writer's choices. Audience affects register, amount of explanation, and appeals used.

A group of words containing a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause cannot.

An incomplete sentence that lacks a subject, a verb, or a complete thought, such as Because the rain stopped. Fragments are usually errors in formal writing but may be stylistic in fiction.

Two independent clauses joined without correct punctuation or a conjunction. A comma splice is a common type in which only a comma separates the clauses.

A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses, such as and, but, because, and although. Coordinating conjunctions join equal parts; subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses.

Active voice makes the subject perform the action, as in the student wrote the essay. Passive voice makes the subject receive it, as in the essay was written by the student.

Marks such as commas, semicolons, colons, and dashes that clarify sentence structure and meaning. Correct punctuation prevents ambiguity and shows how ideas are grouped.

The point of view from which a story is told, such as first person, third-person limited, or omniscient. Perspective controls what information the reader can access.

The voice telling a story, who may be a character within it or an outside observer. A narrator's knowledge and reliability shape how readers judge events.

A gap between what is said or expected and what is actually meant or happens. Verbal irony says one thing and means another; dramatic irony occurs when readers know more than characters.

The methods a writer uses to build characters, through description, dialogue, action, and the responses of others. Direct characterisation tells; indirect shows through behaviour.