CAAP ATPL Knowledge Exam cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2: VFR minima in controlled airspace at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL: 8 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m (1000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

ICAO Annex 2 semicircular rule (track 000-179 magnetic): cruise levels FL 010/030/050... below 290, FL 310/330... above; tracks 180-359 use FL 020/040... and FL 300/320...

Transition altitude: aircraft sets QNH and reports altitude below it; above it sets standard pressure 1013.25 hPa and reports flight level. Transition level is the lowest usable FL, never below the TA.

Quadrantal rule (used where promulgated instead of semicircular): magnetic tracks 000-089, 090-179, 180-269, 270-359 correspond to odd, even, odd, even thousands of feet respectively.

ATS airspace classes: A = IFR only, all separated; B = IFR and VFR, all separated; C = IFR separated from all, VFR separated from IFR only; D = IFR/IFR separated, VFR receives traffic info; E = IFR separated from IFR, VFR gets traffic info; F and G = no separation clearance.

Clearance read-back is mandatory for: ATC route clearances, clearances/instructions to hold short, enter, cross or backtrack a runway, runway-in-use, conditional clearances, altimeter settings, SSR codes, level instructions, heading and speed instructions, and frequency instructions.

An aircraft on final approach or landing has right of way over aircraft in flight and on the ground; an aircraft landing or on final has right of way over aircraft taxiing. Give way to the right when two aircraft converge at the same level.

Annex 1 medical validity (single-pilot commercial): Class 1 ECG at first issue and then annually; Class 1 medical renewed every 12 months until age 40, every 6 months from 40 to 60, every 4 months after 60 (varies by state implementation).

Aircraft must not fly over congested areas below 300 m (1000 ft) above the highest obstacle within 600 m, or elsewhere below 150 m (500 ft) above ground or water, except for take-off and landing.

Hydraulic system pressure = force/area (P = F/A); doubling actuator piston area doubles output force for the same system pressure while halving stroke speed for a given flow.

Gas turbine thrust equation: thrust = mass flow x (jet velocity - aircraft velocity) + pressure thrust term; static thrust is maximum at zero forward speed and falls with increasing airspeed.

Bypass ratio = mass flow through the fan duct / mass flow through the core; high-bypass turbofans give better propulsive efficiency and lower specific fuel consumption at moderate speeds.

Bleed air is taken from HP compressor stages (HP valve) at low rpm and LP stages at high rpm; it supplies air conditioning, pressurisation, anti-ice and engine starting.

APU provides electrical power, bleed air for starting and air conditioning on the ground and, on some types, in flight up to a limiting altitude; APU start is normally battery-powered.

Fuel: Jet A-1 freezing point about -47 C, flash point above 38 C; fuel is used as a heat sink for engine oil and IDG cooling, so cold-soaked fuel limits are imposed.

Landing gear: oleo strut damping depends on orifice restriction; shimmy is prevented by torque links and nose-wheel steering damping; anti-skid releases brake pressure when wheel deceleration exceeds a threshold.

Pressurisation: cabin differential pressure = cabin pressure minus ambient pressure; the outflow valve modulates to control cabin altitude and rate of climb/descent (typically 500 ft/min climb, 300 ft/min descent).

Fire detection: engine fire loops use resistance or gas (Lindberg) sensing elements; a dual-loop system with both loops failed in one engine gives a fire warning, while a single-loop failure gives a fault indication.

Pitot-static: indicated airspeed depends on dynamic pressure; true airspeed increases about 2% per 1000 ft of altitude for a constant IAS at constant temperature.

Altimeter errors: pressure error (position/static source), instrument error, temperature error (cold air: altimeter over-reads, true altitude lower than indicated), and lag.

Mach number = TAS / local speed of sound; speed of sound a = sqrt(gamma x R x T), about 661 kt at sea level ISA and decreasing about 1 kt per 1000 ft.

Machmeter uses pitot pressure and static pressure; it is unaffected by temperature and pressure errors that affect the ASI, so MMO is a structural limit.

Gyroscope rigidity (gyroscopic inertia) depends on rotor mass, rotor speed and mass distribution; precession rate = applied torque / angular momentum.

Attitude indicator: real (earth-referenced) gyro, horizontal spin axis; heading indicator: real gyro, vertical spin axis; turn indicator: rate gyro measuring rate of turn, not bank angle.

Turn coordinator shows rate of turn and includes a roll or inclinometer; a standard rate one turn is 3 degrees per second, i.e. 360 degrees in 2 minutes.

Radio altimeter measures height above terrain using frequency modulation (FM-CW) or pulse, valid typically 0-2500 ft; it is independent of barometric pressure.

EFIS: EGPWS/TCAS and weather radar returns are displayed on ND; red on weather radar indicates high precipitation reflectivity, not turbulence directly; radar tilt and gain must be managed.

Moment = mass x arm; CG position = total moment / total mass. Use consistent units (kg x m or lb x in).

Maximum take-off mass = maximum zero-fuel mass + take-off fuel; maximum landing mass = maximum take-off mass - trip fuel (or as limited by performance).

Zero fuel mass = dry operating mass + traffic load; maximum zero-fuel mass limits structural loading independent of fuel.

CG shift after moving an item = (mass moved x distance moved) / total mass; the CG moves toward the moved mass.

Adding mass aft of the CG moves the CG aft; adding mass forward of the CG moves it forward; adding mass exactly at the CG leaves the CG unchanged.

Forward CG limits: increased stick forces, longer take-off run, higher stall speed, reduced cruise efficiency and reduced range. Aft CG limits: reduced static stability and possible pitch-up/stall recovery difficulty.

Load sheet: dry operating mass includes crew, crew baggage, catering and fixed equipment; operating mass = dry operating mass + take-off fuel.

Floor loading limits are expressed as maximum load per unit area (kg/m2) and must be checked for dense cargo; compartment running load limits also apply.

Take-off distance available (TODA) = TORA + clearway; take-off run available (TORA) is the runway length available for ground run.

Balanced field length: the field length at which accelerate-stop distance equals accelerate-go distance; V1 chosen so that both are equal minimises field length.

V speeds: V1 decision speed, VR rotation speed, V2 take-off safety speed (at least 1.13 Vs1 in the all-engines configuration for twins), VREF landing reference speed (1.3 Vs0).

Climb gradients (CS-25/FAR 25 twins): second segment 2.4%, take-off flight path; final take-off segment 1.2%; approach climb 2.1%; landing climb 3.2% (all engines).

Second segment climb starts at 35 ft above the take-off surface, ends at 400 ft; take-off thrust is time-limited (typically 5 minutes, 10 minutes on some types).

Landing distance required = landing distance available; a 1.15 factor over the demonstrated landing distance is commonly applied to the actual landing distance (dry runway).

Runway slope, wind, temperature, pressure altitude and runway surface condition all affect take-off and landing distance; a 1% uphill slope increases take-off distance roughly 5-10%.

Contaminated runway: use contaminated runway performance data; braking action reports (good, medium, poor) and the runway condition code (RWYCC 0-6) drive the assessment.

Fuel plan: trip fuel + contingency (typically 5% of trip fuel) + alternate fuel + final reserve + additional/extra fuel = total fuel; taxi fuel is added separately.

Final reserve: 30 minutes holding at 1500 ft above the alternate aerodrome (or destination if no alternate) in ISA conditions.

Specific range = air distance / fuel used; maximum range occurs at the speed for maximum (TAS/fuel flow), maximum endurance at minimum fuel flow.

Point of no return (equal time point): the point where time to destination equals time back to base, accounting for wind; equal time point depends on wind, not on fuel alone.

Flight plan: ICAO format includes aircraft identification, flight rules, type of aircraft/wake turbulence, equipment, departure and destination, route, level, speed, and endurance.

Wind effect: headwind increases trip fuel and time; the wind component along track = wind speed x cos(angle between wind and track); crosswind = wind speed x sin(angle).

Cruise altitude selection considers optimum altitude (where specific range is best), step climbs as mass decreases, and semi-circular/quadrantal level rules.

In-flight monitoring: compare actual fuel flow and ground speed with the flight plan; a fuel deviation trend must be assessed against the final reserve before deciding to divert.

Hypoxia: time of useful consciousness at FL 350 is about 30-60 seconds (rapid decompression), at FL 250 about 3-5 minutes; above FL 100 oxygen is required for sustained flight.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling and visual disturbance; treatment is to slow the breathing rate and, if hypoxia is suspected, use 100% oxygen.

Spatial disorientation: somatogyral illusion (false rotation) and somatogravic illusion (false pitch) occur because the otolith organs cannot distinguish gravity from acceleration; trust the instruments.

Night vision uses rods, which are most sensitive to blue-green light and are destroyed by bright white light; dark adaptation takes about 30 minutes.

Cabin altitude above 8000 ft reduces night vision and cognitive performance; pressurisation failure requires oxygen masks and emergency descent to below 10 000 ft or MSA.

Circadian rhythm: body temperature minimum around 04:00-06:00 local; performance and alertness are lowest then, and this window is the main risk for fatigue.

Crew resource management: assertiveness, situational awareness, decision-making, communication and leadership; a steep authority gradient suppresses junior crew input.

Stress: moderate arousal improves performance (Yerkes-Dodson), but high stress narrows attention and increases error; fatigue is cumulative and not fully restored by one night's sleep.

ISA: sea level temperature 15 C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 C per 1000 ft up to 36 090 ft (tropopause, -56.5 C).

QNH is pressure reduced to sea level; QFE is pressure at aerodrome level; QNE is 1013.25 hPa used above the transition altitude.

Height above aerodrome from QNH: pressure altitude minus aerodrome pressure altitude x 30 ft/hPa (approximately 27 ft/hPa at high altitude).

Cloud base estimation: cumulus base (ft) = (temperature - dewpoint) x 400 (spread in C); convective cloud forms when the ELR exceeds the SALR and the air is conditionally unstable.

Icing: clear ice forms in freezing rain or large supercooled droplets (most dangerous), rime ice in small droplets at high airspeed; carburettor icing is most likely at temperatures between -5 C and +15 C with high humidity.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus, mature (up to 30-40 minutes, heaviest rain, hail, lightning, downdrafts), dissipating; avoid by at least 20 nm laterally and fly below the freezing level or above the top.

Wind: geostrophic wind is parallel to isobars, surface wind crosses isobars toward low pressure at 30-45 degrees over land due to friction; Buys Ballot: back to wind in the northern hemisphere, low pressure is on the left.

Altimeter temperature error: flying from high temperature to low temperature without resetting causes the altimeter to over-read, so true altitude is lower than indicated; use cold temperature corrections for approach minima.

Great circle: shortest distance between two points, all meridians are great circles; rhumb line: constant track, crosses all meridians at the same angle, longer than the great circle except on the equator or a meridian.

Earth model: 1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 degree of latitude = 60 nm; 1 minute of longitude = 1 nm x cos(latitude).

Conversion: 1 nm = 1852 m; 1 kt = 1 nm/h; TAS in nm/min = TAS/60, so distance = nm/min x minutes.

Track and heading: heading = track - wind correction angle; drift = angle between heading and track; wind correction angle sin(WCA) = (wind speed x sin(wind angle))/TAS.

Magnetic variation east is least (subtract east variation from true to get magnetic); deviation is the compass error caused by aircraft magnetism, applied via the compass deviation card.

Mercator chart: rhumb line is a straight line, scale varies with latitude (increases toward the poles), great circles are curved toward the poles.

Lambert conformal conic: great circles are approximately straight lines, scale is constant on the standard parallels; used for many aeronautical charts.

Time: UTC is used in flight planning; local time = UTC +/- longitude/15 hours; the date line (180 degrees) changes the date by one day.

VOR: radial is the magnetic bearing from the station to the aircraft; CDI centred with TO/FROM flag gives the selected course; the ambiguity is resolved only by the TO/FROM indication.

VOR line of sight: range approximately 1.23 x sqrt(height in feet) nautical miles; VOR accuracy about +/-1 degree plus site errors.

NDB/ADF: the ADF needle points to the station relative to the aircraft nose (relative bearing); magnetic bearing to station = heading + relative bearing.

DME: slant range, so indicated distance is greater than ground distance; error is small at long range and significant overhead the station (height effect).

ILS: localiser gives lateral guidance (108.10-111.95 MHz, odd tenths), glideslope gives vertical guidance (329.15-335 MHz); a 3 degree glideslope gives about 318 ft/nm.

ILS categories: CAT I decision height 200 ft, RVR 550 m; CAT II DH 100 ft, RVR 300 m; CAT IIIa DH 50 ft or no DH, RVR 200 m; CAT IIIb RVR 75 m; CAT IIIc no DH and no RVR limit.

GNSS: RAIM provides integrity monitoring; a minimum of 5 satellites is needed for RAIM with fault detection, 6 for fault detection and exclusion (FDE).

Radar: primary radar return depends on target size, shape and material; transponder modes A (identification), C (altitude), S (selective addressing); TCAS II issues resolution advisories.

Take-off minima: for a runway with approach lights and centreline markings, RVR 125 m may allow take-off with a 90 m RVR if the required visual references are met; otherwise RVR 150 m or 200 m applies depending on lighting.

Emergency descent: oxygen masks on, transponder 7700, MAYDAY call, descend to 10 000 ft or MSA, speed up to VMO/MMO or turbulent air penetration speed, and turn off the track.

Fire in flight: shut off fuel, bleed air and electrical supply to the affected engine, discharge the fire bottle, and land as soon as practicable; a fire warning that persists after discharge requires immediate landing.

Ditching: approach into wind and parallel to the swell, nose slightly up, minimise rate of descent at touchdown, and evacuate with life jackets; transmit MAYDAY with position and intentions.

Engine failure after take-off: maintain directional control, pitch for V2, identify and confirm the failed engine, feather, and follow the emergency checklist; do not retract flaps below 400 ft.

Pressurisation failure: don oxygen masks, establish communication, perform emergency descent, and level off at 10 000 ft or MSA; cabin altitude warning at about 10 000 ft.

Contaminated runway take-off: use the contaminated runway performance data, apply the correct derate and thrust setting, and check that V1 is achievable with the available stopping distance.

Search and rescue: transmit MAYDAY on 121.5 MHz, activate ELT (406 MHz), and use the standard cloud-breaking procedure if no approach aid is available.

Lift L = CL x 1/2 rho V^2 S; induced drag Di = CDi x 1/2 rho V^2 S, with CDi = CL^2 / (pi x AR x e).

Lift coefficient increases approximately linearly with angle of attack up to the critical angle (about 15-18 degrees), then decreases sharply at the stall.

Stall speed Vs = sqrt(2W / (rho x S x CLmax)); stall speed increases with the square root of the load factor, so at 2 g it is 1.41 times the 1 g stall speed.

Induced drag is highest at low speed and high angle of attack; parasite drag rises with the square of speed; total drag is minimum at the speed where induced and parasite drag are equal.

Static stability requires a negative pitching moment slope with angle of attack; the horizontal tail provides the restoring moment, and the CG must be forward of the neutral point.

Mach effects: critical Mach number is the free-stream Mach at which local airflow first reaches Mach 1; shock waves cause drag rise, buffet and possible Mach tuck.

Sweepback increases the critical Mach number and improves lateral stability but reduces lift coefficient and requires higher take-off and landing speeds.

Load factor n = L/W; in a level turn n = 1/cos(bank), so a 60 degree bank gives 2 g and the stall speed increases by 41%.