CAAP CPL Knowledge Exam cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 classifies airspace as A to G; Class A permits IFR only, Class G is uncontrolled with no ATC clearance required (though rules of the air still apply).

VMC minima in Class C-E airspace above 3,050 m (10,000 ft) AMSL: 8 km flight visibility and 1,500 m horizontal / 300 m (1,000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

At or below 900 m (3,000 ft) AMSL in Class C-E: 5 km flight visibility, 1,500 m horizontally and 300 m (1,000 ft) vertically from cloud.

Semi-circular (hemispheric) cruising levels: magnetic track 000-179 use odd thousands (FL 090, 110...); 180-359 use even thousands (FL 100, 120...).

Aircraft must carry documents: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, journey log, and (for radio-equipped aircraft) radio station licence.

VFR flights may not depart unless the latest available meteorological information indicates VMC will prevail at the destination and alternates for the expected time of arrival.

Special VFR may be authorised in a control zone when ground visibility is at least 1,500 m and the flight can remain clear of cloud and in sight of the surface.

Aircraft on converging tracks: the one with the other on its right gives way; head-on both turn right; overtaking aircraft keeps clear, whether climbing, descending or level.

A 24 V lead-acid battery has 12 cells at approximately 2.1 V per cell at full charge; specific gravity of electrolyte near 1.280 indicates a charged cell.

Alternator output is regulated by controlling field current; a failed alternator typically shows a discharge indication and the battery supplies the essential bus until load shedding.

The pitot-static system: pitot tube feeds the airspeed indicator; static port feeds ASI, altimeter and VSI; a blocked static port makes the ASI read high in a climb and low in a descent.

A blocked pitot tube with drain hole open causes the ASI to read approximately zero; with drain blocked, ASI behaves like an altimeter (reads high in climb).

Carburettor ice forms at ambient temperatures between roughly -10 C and +20 C with high humidity; apply carburettor heat fully, expect an initial RPM drop, then a rise as ice melts.

Engine detonation is uncontrolled explosive combustion indicated by high cylinder head temperature and rough running; pre-ignition occurs before the spark and can destroy pistons rapidly.

A constant-speed propeller maintains a selected RPM by varying blade angle: coarse pitch (high angle) for high speed and low RPM, fine pitch for take-off and climb.

The magneto check at run-up: maximum drop is typically 150 RPM per magneto and 50 RPM difference between them; greater drop indicates ignition timing or plug problems.

Load sheet check: dry operating mass + traffic load = zero fuel mass; ZFM + fuel = take-off mass; take-off mass - trip fuel = landing mass.

CG position = sum of (moment of each item) / total mass; moment = mass x arm measured from the datum.

Maximum zero fuel mass is a structural limit; exceeding it invalidates the flight even if take-off mass is within limits.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 x (OAT - ISA temperature), where ISA temperature = 15 C - 2 C per 1,000 ft of pressure altitude.

Take-off distance increases roughly 10% per 1,000 ft of density altitude gain; headwind decreases and tailwind increases ground roll.

Climb gradient (%) = (height gained / horizontal distance) x 100; required obstacle clearance gradients for departure procedures commonly 3.3% (152 ft/NM).

Landing distance required must not exceed landing distance available multiplied by the applicable factor (e.g. 1.43 for dry, 1.67 for wet runways under EU-OPS).

Fuel planning: trip fuel + contingency (typically 5% of trip) + alternate + final reserve (30 min for turbine, 45 min for piston) + extra.

Hypoxia symptoms: euphoria, impaired judgement, cyanosis, tingling; time of useful consciousness at FL 350 is roughly 30-60 seconds; at FL 250 about 3-5 minutes.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness and tingling but CO2 is low; treatment is controlled breathing and reassurance, not supplemental oxygen alone.

Spatial disorientation: somatogravic illusion makes a rapid acceleration feel like a climb; the leans and graveyard spiral arise from unperceived bank.

Night vision uses rods (peripheral, poor acuity, slow dark adaptation up to 30 min); central vision uses cones and a day blind spot at the fovea.

The '1 in 60' rule and workload management relate to situational awareness; high workload degrades scan and prioritisation, so tasks must be sequenced by criticality.

Decompression sickness (bends) risk rises with altitude exposure after diving; a 12-hour (non-decompression) to 24-hour (decompression) interval is commonly required before flight.

Alcohol: minimum 8 hours bottle-to-throttle and blood alcohol below 0.02% (20 mg/100 mL) in most EASA states; fatigue and alcohol have additive effects.

Stress and arousal follow the Yerkes-Dodson curve: moderate arousal optimises performance; excessive stress narrows attention and increases error rate.

ISA: sea level temperature 15 C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 C per 1,000 ft up to 11 km (36,090 ft), then isothermal to 20 km.

QNH is pressure reduced to sea level; QFE is pressure at aerodrome elevation; the altimeter reads elevation on QNH and zero on QFE.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude + 30 ft x (1013 - QNH in hPa); flying from high to low pressure without resetting the subscale causes the aircraft to descend.

Cloud types: cumulonimbus indicates instability with severe turbulence, icing and hail; stratocumulus and stratus indicate stable air with drizzle or poor visibility.

A cold front typically moves at 20-35 kt, has a steep slope (1:50), narrow band of heavy showers, squall lines and rapid wind veer after passage.

A warm front has a shallow slope (1:150), extensive stratiform cloud, steady precipitation ahead, and improved conditions after passage with rising temperature.

Icing: clear ice forms in large supercooled droplets at 0 to -10 C, rime in small droplets at -10 to -20 C; freezing rain is the most hazardous.

Wind shear on final approach: a decreasing headwind (or increasing tailwind) causes airspeed and lift loss; apply go-around if unable to maintain the approach path.

True bearing = magnetic bearing + variation (east variation subtract from true to get magnetic); compass heading = magnetic heading + deviation.

1 in 60 rule: track error (degrees) = (distance off track / distance flown) x 60; closing angle = (distance to go / distance off track) x 60.

The VOR CDI shows course deviation; TO/FROM flag indicates whether the selected radial is ahead or behind; a reverse sensing occurs when the OBS is set to the reciprocal.

NDB/ADF: the needle points to the station relative to the aircraft heading; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to the station.

ILS categories: CAT I decision height 200 ft and RVR 550 m; CAT II 100 ft and RVR 300 m; CAT III allows lower or zero decision height with autoland.

GPS RAIM (receiver autonomous integrity monitoring) ensures integrity of position; a RAIM prediction is required for certain RNP approaches.

Great circle distance: 1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 degree of latitude = 60 NM; longitude spacing decreases with cos(latitude).

Transponder squawk codes: 7500 hijack, 7600 radio failure, 7700 emergency; Mode C reports pressure altitude.

Take-off briefing must include rejected take-off decision speed, engine failure actions, emergency turn or continued climb, and the actions after lift-off.

V1 is the decision speed; below V1 reject the take-off, above V1 continue; V2 is the take-off safety speed (minimum 1.13 VS1 or 1.2 VS1 depending on configuration).

Emergency descent: set maximum descent, speed brakes, idle power, turn away from the airway, and squawk 7700 with MAYDAY call.

Fire in flight: shut off fuel, mixture, electrics and bleed air to the affected engine; discharge the fire bottle and plan the nearest suitable aerodrome.

Ditching: approach into wind with minimum speed, cabin secured, life jackets on, and transmit MAYDAY with position and intentions.

Cabin depressurisation: don oxygen masks first, then descend to FL 100 or MSA; time of useful consciousness is the limiting factor.

Go-around: apply power, establish climb attitude, clean up in stages (flaps, gear), and follow the published missed-approach procedure or ATC instructions.

Wake turbulence separation: heavy behind heavy 4 NM, medium behind heavy 5 NM, light behind heavy 6 NM on approach.

Lift = 1/2 x rho x V^2 x S x CL; induced drag = 1/2 x rho x V^2 x S x CDi, with CDi = CL^2 / (pi x AR x e).

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack (typically 15-18 degrees), independent of airspeed, weight and bank angle; a stall can occur at any speed.

Load factor n = 1/cos(bank angle) in a level turn; at 60 degrees bank n = 2, and stall speed increases by sqrt(n) (1.41x).

The critical engine (multi-engine) is the one whose failure produces the greatest yaw; for a conventional twin, both engines turn clockwise seen from the cockpit, so the left engine is critical.

VMC is the minimum control speed with the critical engine failed; VYSE is the best single-engine climb speed (blue line).

Dihedral produces lateral stability: sideslip toward a wing increases its angle of attack and restores level flight.

Total drag = parasite drag (increases with V^2) + induced drag (decreases with V^2); minimum total drag occurs at the speed for best glide.

Mach critical (Mcr) is the free-stream Mach number at which airflow over some part of the wing reaches Mach 1; sweep and thin airfoils raise Mcr.

VFR position report format: station called, callsign, position, altitude, next position and ETA, and intentions.

MAYDAY (distress) is repeated three times; PAN-PAN (urgency) three times; both should include callsign, nature, position, altitude, and intentions.

Readback is required for clearances, runway assignments, altimeter settings, headings, speeds, and frequency changes; use standard phraseology (e.g. 'line up and wait').

Squawk 7600 for radio failure; if in IMC, follow the last acknowledged clearance, maintain the last assigned level for the appropriate time, then follow the filed route.

Transponder codes and Mode C altitude should be verified on first contact with ATC; a code change must be read back.

IFR clearance items: aircraft identification, clearance limit, route, altitude, and any frequency or squawk; read back the full clearance.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz is monitored by ATC and emergency services; 243.0 MHz is the military equivalent.

Callsigns: use the aircraft registration or flight number; if similar callsigns exist, ATC may add a prefix or suffix to distinguish them.