HEC LAT flashcards

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Subject-verb agreement

A verb must match its subject in number. Singular subjects take singular verbs, plural subjects take plural verbs, even when a prepositional phrase sits between them.

Dangling modifier

An introductory descriptive phrase that fails to attach to the subject of the main clause. It creates an illogical sentence because the described action has the wrong doer.

Comma splice

Joining two independent clauses with only a comma. It is corrected by a semicolon, a period, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction such as "and" or "but."

Parallel structure

Items in a list or comparison must share the same grammatical form, such as all gerunds or all infinitives. Mixed forms break the sentence's balance and clarity.

Fewer versus less

Use "fewer" with countable nouns such as books or students. Use "less" with uncountable nouns such as water, time, or money.

Main idea

The central claim a passage supports throughout. It is broader than any single detail and must cover the whole text, not just one paragraph.

Contrapositive

The logically equivalent form of "if P then Q," namely "if not Q then not P." Unlike the converse, it always preserves the truth of the original statement.

Sufficient condition

A condition whose presence guarantees the outcome. If P is sufficient for Q, then P implies Q, but Q may still occur without P.

Necessary condition

A condition that must hold for the outcome to occur. If P is necessary for Q, then Q implies P, but P alone does not guarantee Q.

Valid versus sound

An argument is valid when its conclusion follows necessarily from its premises. It is sound only when it is valid and its premises are also factually true.

Converse error

Incorrectly inferring "if Q then P" from "if P then Q." The converse is not logically equivalent to the original conditional statement.

Harmonic mean speed

For equal distances travelled at two different speeds, average speed equals twice the product divided by the sum, not the simple arithmetic average.

Permutation versus combination

A permutation counts arrangements where order matters. A combination counts selections where order is irrelevant, so it is always smaller or equal for the same values.

Only if

A phrase that introduces a necessary condition. "P only if Q" means P cannot happen without Q, translating to "if P then Q."

Unless

A word meaning "if not." "P unless Q" translates to "if not Q then P," making Q the condition that blocks P.

Speed of light

Approximately 3 × 10⁸ metres per second in a vacuum. It is the universal upper limit for the propagation of information and energy.

SI base units

The seven foundational units: metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela. All other SI units are derived from combinations of these.

Largest ocean

The Pacific Ocean, covering roughly one-third of Earth's surface. It is larger than all other oceans combined and contains the deepest known trench.

Solar system order

From the Sun outward: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. The first four are rocky planets; the next four are gas and ice giants.

Greenhouse effect

Atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide and methane trap outgoing infrared radiation, warming the planet's surface. It is natural but intensified by human emissions.

Inflation

A sustained rise in the general price level, which reduces the purchasing power of money. It is usually measured by changes in a consumer price index.

Lahore Resolution

A 1940 resolution passed by the All-India Muslim League at Lahore, demanding autonomous Muslim-majority states in the northwest and east of British India.

Objectives Resolution

A 1949 resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan, declaring that sovereignty belongs to God and that the state would protect minority rights and Islamic principles.

1973 Constitution

Pakistan's current constitution. It established a parliamentary system, a bicameral legislature, and declared Islam the state religion, with the Objectives Resolution as preamble.

Durand Line

The border drawn in 1893 between British India and Afghanistan, named after the British official who negotiated it. It now marks the Pakistan–Afghanistan boundary.

K2

Pakistan's highest mountain at 8,611 metres, located in the Karakoram range. It is the world's second-highest peak after Mount Everest.

Indus River

Pakistan's longest river, flowing from the Himalayas through the country to the Arabian Sea. It supports the world's largest contiguous irrigation system.

Five Pillars of Islam

Shahadah, Salah, Zakat, Sawm, and Hajj. These are the core obligatory acts of worship that structure a Muslim's faith and practice.

Zakat

An obligatory annual alms payment on qualifying wealth, generally set at 2.5%. It is one of the Five Pillars and is meant to support the needy.

Hijrah

The migration of Prophet Muhammad from Makkah to Madinah in 622 CE. It marks year one of the Islamic lunar calendar.

Khatam an-Nabiyyin

A Qur'anic title meaning "seal of the prophets." It expresses the belief that Prophet Muhammad is the final prophet in the line of messengers.

Ijma and Qiyas

Two secondary sources of Islamic law. Ijma is scholarly consensus on a ruling; Qiyas is reasoning by analogy from established texts.