NUST NET key terms

In calculus, the rate at which a function's output changes as its input changes, found as the slope of the tangent line at a point. Used to model speed, growth and optimisation problems.

The accumulated total of a function over an interval, interpreted as area under a curve. Definite integrals give numeric values; indefinite integrals give antiderivatives and are used to reverse differentiation.

The value a function approaches as its input approaches some point, regardless of the function's value exactly at that point. Limits underpin both derivatives and integrals in calculus.

The net force on a body equals its mass times acceleration (F = ma). It links force, mass and motion, and lets you compute acceleration or required force when the other quantities are known.

The product of an object's mass and velocity, a vector quantity. In an isolated system total momentum is conserved during collisions, which allows unknown velocities to be calculated.

The product of force and the time over which it acts, equal to the change in momentum. Explains why airbags and crumple zones reduce injury by extending impact time.

The net work done on an object equals its change in kinetic energy. Provides a shortcut for finding speeds after displacement when forces are known, without solving equations of motion step by step.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted between forms. In mechanics, the sum of kinetic and potential energy stays constant when only conservative forces act.

The rate at which work is done or energy is transferred, measured in watts. Computed as work divided by time, or as force multiplied by velocity for a moving object.

For a conductor at constant temperature, current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance (V = IR). Used to analyse simple series and parallel circuits.

In series, components share one path so current is the same and voltages add. In parallel, components share voltage and currents split. Each arrangement gives different equivalent resistance.

The opposition a material offers to current flow, measured in ohms. Depends on material resistivity, length and cross-sectional area, and increases with temperature in typical metals.

A finite, ordered set of unambiguous steps that transforms inputs into a desired output. Every algorithm must terminate and should be correct and efficient for the problem it solves.

A measure of how an algorithm's running time grows with input size, usually expressed in big-O notation such as O(n) or O(n log n). Helps compare approaches independent of hardware.

A way of organising data in memory so operations such as search, insert and delete are efficient. Examples include arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues and trees.

A stack adds and removes items at one end, following last-in-first-out order. A queue adds at one end and removes at the other, following first-in-first-out order. Both are linear structures.

A diagram using standard symbols to show the sequence, decisions and repetition in a process or program. Used to plan logic before coding and to communicate algorithms visually.

A base-2 numeral system using only the digits 0 and 1, where each position represents a power of two. Fundamental to how computers store and process data.

A physical or conceptual device performing a Boolean operation on one or more binary inputs, such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND and XOR. Combinations of gates build digital circuits and processors.

A machine learning approach where a model learns from labelled input-output pairs to predict outputs for new inputs. Tasks include classification and regression, evaluated on unseen test data.

When a model fits training data too closely, capturing noise, so it performs poorly on new data. Remedies include more data, regularisation, simpler models and cross-validation.

Training data is used to fit a model's parameters; test data, kept separate, measures how well the model generalises. Mixing them gives misleadingly high accuracy estimates.

A sensor converts a physical quantity such as distance, light or temperature into a signal. An actuator converts a control signal into physical action, such as motor rotation or gripper movement.

The number of independent movements a robot or mechanism can make, such as each joint rotation. More degrees of freedom allow more flexible positioning but complicate control and planning.

A control method that continuously compares measured output with a desired setpoint and adjusts input to reduce the error. Essential for robots to hold position or follow trajectories accurately.

The amount of substance containing Avogadro's number (about 6.022 × 10²³) of particles. Bridges mass in grams and number of particles in stoichiometric calculations.

The quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation, expressed in mole ratios. Used to predict masses, volumes or moles consumed or produced.

The reactant that is fully consumed first and therefore determines the maximum amount of product formed. Identified by comparing each reactant's available moles with the equation's mole ratio.

The concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per litre of solution. Widely used in titration and dilution calculations.

A logarithmic scale from 0 to 14 measuring hydrogen ion concentration, where pH = −log[H⁺]. Values below 7 are acidic, above 7 basic, and 7 neutral at standard conditions.

A protein that speeds up biochemical reactions by lowering activation energy, acting on specific substrates at an active site. Activity is affected by temperature, pH and substrate concentration.

Loss of a protein's three-dimensional structure, and thus its function, caused by heat, acid, or mechanical action. Explains why egg white solidifies when cooked.

Techniques such as refrigeration, drying, canning and fermentation that slow microbial growth and chemical spoilage, extending shelf life. Each method targets specific spoilage causes.

A measure of the free water available in food for microbial growth and chemical reactions, ranging from 0 to 1. Lowering it by drying or adding sugar improves keeping quality.

The ratio between a drawing or model and the real object it represents, such as 1:100. Determines how measurements on a plan translate into actual dimensions.

A method of representing a three-dimensional object by separate two-dimensional views, such as front, top and side, with parallel lines of sight. Standard in technical drawing.

A pictorial drawing in which the three principal axes are equally inclined, giving a three-dimensional view without perspective distortion. Common in engineering and product sketches.

A proportion of roughly 1:1.618 where the whole relates to the larger part as the larger part relates to the smaller. Frequently cited in design and architecture for pleasing proportions.

Demand is the quantity buyers will purchase at each price; supply is the quantity sellers will offer. Their intersection sets market price and quantity in competitive markets.

A measure of how responsive one variable is to changes in another, commonly price elasticity of demand. Elastic demand means quantity changes proportionally more than price.

The value of the next best alternative forgone when a choice is made. A core concept in economics explaining trade-offs in production and consumption decisions.

The principle that everyone, including the state and its officials, is subject to the same known laws applied fairly. Prevents arbitrary exercise of power and underpins constitutional government.

The division of government into legislature, executive and judiciary, each with distinct functions and checks on the others. Aims to prevent concentration and abuse of authority.

Basic freedoms and protections guaranteed by a constitution, such as speech, equality and fair trial, which state action cannot ordinarily violate. Enforceable through courts.