Government and Civics
Constitutional architecture
Master the six principles: popular sovereignty, limited government, separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism, and judicial review (established in Marbury v. Madison, 1803). Each branch has specific enumerated powers: Congress legislates, taxes, and declares war; the president executes, commands, and vetoes; the judiciary interprets. Checks are reciprocal: veto and pardon, override and impeachment, advice and consent, judicial review of statutes and executive action.
Federalism
Powers are delegated (enumerated to the national government), reserved (states, per the Tenth Amendment), concurrent (shared, such as taxation), and denied (to one or both levels). Distinguish dual federalism (layer cake) from cooperative federalism (marble cake, grants-in-aid).
Participation and process
Know the amendment process (two-thirds of both chambers to propose; three-fourths of states to ratify), the Bill of Rights, voting expansions, the role of parties, interest groups, media, and public opinion. Civic life includes voting, jury service, petitioning, and running for office.
Traps
The most common confusions: separation of powers versus checks and balances (structure versus the powers each branch holds over the others); reserved versus concurrent powers; and Marbury (judicial review) versus McCulloch (implied powers, supremacy). Also, civil liberties (protection from government) versus civil rights (equal treatment).
Rule of thumb
When a scenario involves one branch acting on another, name the check and the branch exercising it. Worked example: the Senate refusing to confirm a nominee is a legislative check on the executive, not an example of separation of powers alone.