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Praxis Fundamental Subjects study materials
Praxis Fundamental Subjects study resources

Praxis Fundamental Subjects practice questions

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Question 1English Language Arts

A student is revising an argumentative essay and wants to add a sentence that acknowledges an opposing viewpoint before refuting it. Which sentence best fulfills that rhetorical purpose?

  1. Some critics contend that school start times should remain unchanged, but later start times have repeatedly been shown to improve attendance. Correct answer.
  2. Therefore, every school district should immediately delay its start time by one hour.
  3. Later school start times improve attendance, and many districts have already adopted them.
  4. Attendance data from several districts show measurable improvement after start times were delayed.

Explanation

A concession-and-rebuttal sentence first names the opposing position, signaled by a phrase such as "some critics contend," and then counters it with evidence. Only the first option both states a counterargument and immediately refutes it with a supporting claim.

Question 2English Language Arts

In the sentence "The committee reviewed the proposal carefully, they found several errors," what is the grammatical error?

  1. A dangling modifier misplaces the subject.
  2. A pronoun lacks a clear antecedent.
  3. A comma splice joins two independent clauses. Correct answer.
  4. An adverb incorrectly modifies an adjective.

Explanation

Both "The committee reviewed the proposal carefully" and "they found several errors" are independent clauses. Joining two independent clauses with only a comma creates a comma splice, which should be fixed with a semicolon, a period, or a coordinating conjunction.

Question 3English Language Arts

Read the sentence: "The scientist's findings were met with skepticism, and her colleagues demanded replication before accepting the results." The word "replication" most nearly means which of the following in this context?

  1. Publication of the findings in a journal
  2. Repetition of the study to confirm its results Correct answer.
  3. Revision of the original hypothesis
  4. Rejection of the conclusions as invalid

Explanation

In scientific contexts, replication refers to repeating a study to see whether the same results can be obtained again. The sentence's emphasis on confirming results before acceptance points to this meaning.

Question 4English Language Arts

A writer wants to combine these sentences into one that emphasizes the cause-and-effect relationship: "The bridge was closed for repairs. Commuters took a longer route." Which revision best expresses that relationship?

  1. Because the bridge was closed for repairs, commuters took a longer route. Correct answer.
  2. The bridge was closed for repairs, and commuters took a longer route.
  3. The bridge was closed for repairs; commuters took a longer route.
  4. The bridge was closed for repairs, so commuters took a longer route anyway.

Explanation

A subordinating conjunction such as "because" explicitly signals a causal relationship between the closure and the detour. The other versions either merely coordinate the ideas or introduce a contradictory tone with "anyway."

Question 5English Language Arts

Which sentence uses the apostrophe correctly according to standard written English conventions?

  1. The teacher's lounge was renovated over the summer for all staff.
  2. The teachers's lounge was renovated over the summer.
  3. The teachers' lounge was renovated over the summer. Correct answer.
  4. The teachers lounge was renovated over the summer.

Explanation

A possessive plural noun ending in -s takes an apostrophe after the s, as in "teachers'." The other forms either use a singular possessive, omit the apostrophe, or add an incorrect extra s.

Question 6English Language Arts

A paragraph opens with "First, the team gathered data." It continues with "Next, they analyzed the results." and "Finally, they published their conclusions." Which organizational pattern does the paragraph use?

  1. Chronological order Correct answer.
  2. Comparison and contrast
  3. Cause and effect
  4. Problem and solution

Explanation

Signal words such as "first," "next," and "finally" mark a sequence of steps in time, which is chronological order. The paragraph traces a process from beginning to end rather than comparing, solving, or explaining causes.

Question 7English Language Arts

In an informational text, an author writes: "Urban gardens do more than beautify neighborhoods; they also reduce the heat-island effect and provide fresh produce." What is the primary purpose of the semicolon in this sentence?

  1. It signals a direct quotation.
  2. It introduces a list of examples.
  3. It joins two closely related independent clauses. Correct answer.
  4. It separates items in a series that contain commas.

Explanation

A semicolon can link two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning, as here. Each side of the semicolon could stand alone as a complete sentence, and the second elaborates on the first.

Question 8English Language Arts

Which word best completes the sentence? "The evidence was so ______ that the jury reached a verdict within an hour."

  1. negligible
  2. compelling Correct answer.
  3. tentative
  4. ambiguous

Explanation

The quick verdict implies the evidence was strong and persuasive, which is the meaning of "compelling." The other choices suggest weakness, uncertainty, or insignificance, which contradict the outcome described.

Question 9English Language Arts

A student writes: "Walking through the museum, the paintings impressed the visitors." What is the problem with this sentence?

  1. The verb tense shifts incorrectly within the sentence.
  2. The word "impressed" is used as an intransitive verb.
  3. The sentence contains a comma splice.
  4. The introductory participial phrase appears to modify "the paintings" rather than "the visitors." Correct answer.

Explanation

An introductory participial phrase should modify the subject of the main clause. Here "walking through the museum" seems to describe the paintings, creating a dangling modifier; the sentence should name the visitors as the ones walking.

Question 10English Language Arts

Which sentence maintains consistent verb tense throughout?

  1. She opened the letter, had read it twice, and then calls her brother.
  2. She opened the letter, read it twice, and then called her brother. Correct answer.
  3. She opens the letter, read it twice, and then calls her brother.
  4. She opened the letter, reads it twice, and then called her brother.

Explanation

All three verbs in the first sentence are in the simple past tense, which keeps the sequence consistent. The other sentences mix past and present forms within a single sequence of actions.

Question 11English Language Arts

An author writes, "The old library was a time capsule, holding decades of whispered secrets." Which literary device is used?

  1. Hyperbole
  2. Metaphor Correct answer.
  3. Onomatopoeia
  4. Simile

Explanation

The sentence states that the library was a time capsule, an implied comparison without "like" or "as," which makes it a metaphor. A simile would use an explicit comparative word.

Question 12English Language Arts

A passage states: "Although the new policy reduced paperwork, it increased the time employees spent in meetings." What is the author's attitude toward the policy?

  1. Entirely enthusiastic
  2. Openly hostile
  3. Balanced, acknowledging both benefits and drawbacks Correct answer.
  4. Indifferent and uninterested

Explanation

The concession word "although" signals that the author recognizes a benefit before noting a drawback, producing a balanced stance. Neither pure approval nor pure opposition is expressed.

Question 13English Language Arts

In a research paper, a writer paraphrases an author's idea but forgets to provide a citation. This act is best described as which of the following?

  1. Plagiarism Correct answer.
  2. Fair use
  3. Paraphrase error
  4. Peer review

Explanation

Presenting someone else's ideas as one's own without attribution, even when reworded, constitutes plagiarism. Fair use concerns copyright exceptions, and peer review is a separate evaluation process.

Question 14English Language Arts

A writer wants to strengthen an argument that public libraries deserve increased funding. Which source would best support this claim with the most relevant evidence?

  1. A municipal report showing rising library attendance and usage statistics Correct answer.
  2. An opinion column arguing that libraries are outdated
  3. A blog post about the writer's favorite books
  4. A novel set in a fictional library

Explanation

Relevant evidence directly addresses the claim with data about library use, which supports the case for funding. The other sources are fictional, personal, or contrary to the argument.

Question 15English Language Arts

Read the sentence: "The CEO's remarks were terse, offering no elaboration and leaving reporters with little to report." Based on context, "terse" most nearly means which of the following?

  1. Warm and welcoming
  2. Confusing and disorganized
  3. Brief and to the point Correct answer.
  4. Lengthy and detailed

Explanation

The clues "offering no elaboration" and "little to report" indicate that the remarks were short and concise. "Terse" therefore means brief and to the point in this context.

Question 16English Language Arts

A teacher wants to introduce examples after a complete sentence. Which version uses the colon correctly?

  1. The class examined: a pond, a forest, and a grassland.
  2. The class: examined three habitats, a pond, a forest, and a grassland.
  3. The class examined three: habitats, a pond, a forest, and a grassland.
  4. The class examined three habitats: a pond, a forest, and a grassland. Correct answer.

Explanation

The introductory clause is complete before the colon, and the following list specifies the three habitats. The other versions interrupt the verb's object, the subject and predicate, or a noun phrase.

Question 17English Language Arts

An essay's thesis statement reads: "Standardized testing should be reduced because it narrows curricula, increases student anxiety, and consumes instructional time." Which criticism of this thesis is most accurate?

  1. It contains no controlling idea.
  2. It is too vague to guide the essay.
  3. It is clear and previews three supporting reasons. Correct answer.
  4. It lacks a debatable claim.

Explanation

The thesis takes a debatable position and previews three specific reasons that will organize the essay. This structure makes it clear and effective rather than vague or undebatable.

Question 18English Language Arts

Which sentence uses parallel structure correctly?

  1. The internship teaches students to research, analyzing, and presentation of findings.
  2. The internship teaches students to research, to analyze, and to present findings. Correct answer.
  3. The internship teaches students research, analysis, and to present findings.
  4. The internship teaches students researching, to analyze, and presenting findings.

Explanation

Parallel structure requires all items in a series to share the same grammatical form. The first sentence uses three infinitive phrases (to research, to analyze, to present), which is consistent.

Question 19English Language Arts

A reader encounters the claim "Studies prove that homework has no benefits" in an online article. Which feature most weakens the credibility of this claim?

  1. It cites no specific studies or sources for the sweeping assertion. Correct answer.
  2. It uses the word "prove" rather than "suggest."
  3. It addresses a topic that many people discuss.
  4. It appears in an online article rather than a printed book.

Explanation

A broad claim about what "studies prove" is only credible when specific research is cited and verifiable. The absence of named sources makes the assertion unsupported, regardless of the medium.

Question 20English Language Arts

In the sentence "The report, which was written by the intern, was praised by the director," what is the function of the clause "which was written by the intern"?

  1. It is an adverbial clause modifying the verb "praised."
  2. It is a nonrestrictive relative clause adding extra information. Correct answer.
  3. It is an independent clause forming a compound sentence.
  4. It is a restrictive clause essential to identifying the report.

Explanation

Set off by commas, the clause adds nonessential information about the report and can be removed without changing the sentence's core meaning. This makes it a nonrestrictive relative clause.

Question 21English Language Arts

A student is writing a narrative and wants to create suspense before revealing a surprise. Which technique best achieves that effect?

  1. Using only simple declarative sentences throughout
  2. Including a lengthy digression about an unrelated event
  3. Pacing the scene with short, clipped sentences and delayed details Correct answer.
  4. Stating the surprise in the first sentence

Explanation

Suspense is built by controlling pacing and withholding key information until the right moment. Short sentences and delayed details heighten tension before the reveal.

Question 22English Language Arts

Which sentence correctly uses subject-verb agreement?

  1. Each of the students has submitted a proposal. Correct answer.
  2. Each of the students were submitting a proposal.
  3. Each of the students are submitting a proposal.
  4. Each of the students have submitted a proposal.

Explanation

The subject "each" is singular, so it takes the singular verb "has." The phrase "of the students" does not change the number of the subject.

Question 23English Language Arts

An author describes a character as "generous to a fault, giving away her last coin to a stranger." What does the phrase "generous to a fault" reveal about the character?

  1. Her generosity is a flaw she is trying to overcome.
  2. Her generosity is insincere and performed for attention.
  3. Her generosity is excessive and may harm her own interests. Correct answer.
  4. Her generosity is limited to people she knows well.

Explanation

The idiom "to a fault" means to an excessive degree, suggesting the trait goes beyond what is prudent. Giving away her last coin illustrates generosity carried to a self-harming extreme.

Question 24English Language Arts

A writer is drafting a persuasive letter to a school board and wants to address the counterargument fairly. Which approach best strengthens the letter's credibility?

  1. Ignoring the opposing view entirely
  2. Summarizing the opposing view accurately before presenting evidence against it Correct answer.
  3. Misrepresenting the opposing view to make it easier to refute
  4. Repeating the writer's main claim several times without evidence

Explanation

Accurately representing an opposing view and then rebutting it with evidence demonstrates fairness and strengthens credibility. Distorting or ignoring the opposition weakens the argument.

Question 25English Language Arts

Which sentence uses a coordinating conjunction correctly to fix a run-on?

  1. The storm knocked out power; so the school closed for the day.
  2. The storm knocked out power, the school closed for the day.
  3. The storm knocked out power, so the school closed for the day. Correct answer.
  4. The storm knocked out power the school closed for the day.

Explanation

A coordinating conjunction such as "so" joined by a comma correctly links two independent clauses. This repairs the run-on by making the relationship between the clauses explicit and grammatical.

Question 26English Language Arts

Which sentence correctly joins two closely related independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction?

  1. The seedlings needed light; the teacher moved them beside the window. Correct answer.
  2. The seedlings needed light, the teacher moved them beside the window.
  3. The seedlings; needed light, the teacher moved them beside the window.
  4. The seedlings needed; light the teacher moved them beside the window.

Explanation

Both clauses could stand as complete sentences, so a semicolon can join them without a coordinating conjunction. A comma alone creates a splice, and splitting either clause internally is incorrect.

Question 27English Language Arts

A student writes: 'Each of the players on the team have a locker.' Which revision corrects the subject-verb agreement error in this sentence?

  1. Each of the players on the team has a locker. Correct answer.
  2. Each of the players on the team are having a locker.
  3. Each of the players on the team were given a locker.
  4. Each of the players on the team having a locker.

Explanation

The subject is the indefinite pronoun 'Each,' which is singular, so it takes the singular verb 'has.' The prepositional phrase 'of the players on the team' does not change the number of the subject.

Question 28English Language Arts

In the sentence 'The committee reviewed the proposal carefully,' which word functions as an adverb?

  1. reviewed
  2. carefully Correct answer.
  3. committee
  4. proposal

Explanation

An adverb modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, and here 'carefully' describes how the committee reviewed. The other words are a noun, a verb, and a noun respectively.

Question 29English Language Arts

Which statement best describes the role of a thesis statement in an academic essay?

  1. It presents the essay's central claim and previews its line of reasoning. Correct answer.
  2. It lists every source the writer consulted during research.
  3. It summarizes the essay's conclusion in the final paragraph.
  4. It provides background details that open the introduction.

Explanation

A thesis statement articulates the main argument and often signals the organization of the supporting points. It appears early, usually at the end of the introduction, and guides the rest of the essay.

Question 30English Language Arts

A writer wants to combine these two sentences into one compound sentence: 'The rain stopped. The game resumed.' Which revision creates a correctly punctuated compound sentence?

  1. The rain stopped the game resumed.
  2. The rain stopped, so the game resumed. Correct answer.
  3. The rain stopped; so the game resumed.
  4. The rain stopped, the game resumed.

Explanation

A compound sentence joins two independent clauses with a comma plus a coordinating conjunction such as 'so.' Here 'so' signals the cause-and-effect relationship and the comma correctly precedes it.

Question 31English Language Arts

Which word in the sentence 'The scientist's hypothesis was plausible, so the team designed an experiment' is used as an adjective?

  1. plausible Correct answer.
  2. hypothesis
  3. experiment
  4. designed

Explanation

An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun, and 'plausible' describes the noun 'hypothesis.' The remaining words are nouns or a verb.

Question 32English Language Arts

In a narrative, a writer describes a character's room as 'a museum of unfinished projects: half-built models, unread books, and abandoned sketchbooks.' What does this description most clearly suggest about the character?

  1. The character dislikes art and reading.
  2. The character has many interests but struggles to complete them. Correct answer.
  3. The character is disciplined about finishing tasks.
  4. The character is highly organized.

Explanation

The metaphor 'museum of unfinished projects' and the specific abandoned items imply abundant interests paired with a pattern of not finishing. Details in a narrative often reveal character indirectly.

Question 33English Language Arts

Which sentence uses an apostrophe correctly to show possession?

  1. The teachers lounge is down the hall's.
  2. The teachers lounge is down the hall.
  3. The teachers' lounge is down the halls'.
  4. The teacher's lounge is down the hall. Correct answer.

Explanation

A singular noun takes an apostrophe plus 's' to show possession, so 'teacher's lounge' indicates a lounge belonging to one teacher. The apostrophe must attach to the possessor, not the object possessed.

Question 34English Language Arts

A writer wants to replace the vague word 'thing' in 'The report discussed several things about climate policy.' Which revision is most precise?

  1. The report discussed several thing about climate policy.
  2. The report discussed several stuff about climate policy.
  3. The report discussed several items of climate policy.
  4. The report discussed several aspects of climate policy. Correct answer.

Explanation

'Aspects' is a precise noun that fits the context of a report analyzing dimensions of a policy. Replacing vague nouns with specific ones improves clarity and formality.

Question 35English Language Arts

Read the passage: 'The volunteers arrived at dawn. They sorted donations, stocked shelves, and served breakfast. By noon, every task was complete.' Which statement best describes the passage's organizational pattern?

  1. It presents events in chronological order. Correct answer.
  2. It compares two volunteer groups.
  3. It states a problem and proposes a solution.
  4. It explains causes and effects of volunteering.

Explanation

Time markers such as 'at dawn' and 'by noon' signal a chronological sequence of events. Recognizing these transitions helps readers identify the text structure.

Question 36English Language Arts

A writer cites an anonymous blog post with no author credentials to support a claim about nutrition. Which criticism of this source is most valid?

  1. The source is reliable because it appears online.
  2. The source is unreliable because it is written in prose.
  3. The source is unreliable because it lacks identifiable authorship and expertise. Correct answer.
  4. The source is reliable because blogs are always current.

Explanation

Evaluating sources involves checking author credentials, evidence, and accountability. An anonymous blog post offers no way to verify expertise or bias, which weakens its credibility.

Question 37English Language Arts

Which sentence correctly uses a dash to set off a parenthetical remark?

  1. The final exam-which had been postponed twice-will be held Friday. Correct answer.
  2. The final exam-which had been postponed twice, will be held Friday.
  3. The final exam, which had been postponed twice-will be held Friday.
  4. The final exam which had been postponed twice-will be held Friday.

Explanation

A pair of dashes can enclose a parenthetical element, and both dashes must be present. In the correct option, the two dashes surround the interrupting clause 'which had been postponed twice.'

Question 38English Language Arts

A writer wants to show that one idea is more important than another in a single sentence. The intended relationship is cause and effect: the win caused the celebration. Which revision best uses subordination to achieve this?

  1. Although the team won the championship, the fans celebrated.
  2. Because the team won the championship, the fans celebrated. Correct answer.
  3. The team won the championship, but the fans celebrated.
  4. The team won the championship, and the fans celebrated.

Explanation

Subordination places the less important idea in a dependent clause and the main idea in the independent clause. 'Because the team won the championship' is subordinate, making the fans' celebration the main point. 'Because' also identifies the win as the cause of the celebration.

Question 39English Language Arts

Which sentence maintains formal academic register appropriate for a research paper?

  1. The data are like totally convincing about the intervention.
  2. The data say the intervention is a big win.
  3. The data clearly show that the intervention works pretty well.
  4. The data indicate that the intervention is largely effective. Correct answer.

Explanation

Formal academic register favors precise vocabulary and avoids slang, intensifiers, and colloquial phrases. 'Indicate' and 'largely effective' are measured and appropriate for research writing.

Question 40English Language Arts

In the sentence 'The committee will announce its decision after the members review the proposal,' which word is the antecedent of the pronoun 'its'?

  1. proposal
  2. decision
  3. committee Correct answer.
  4. members

Explanation

An antecedent is the noun a pronoun refers to. 'Its' refers back to 'committee,' which owns the decision, so 'committee' is the antecedent.

Question 41English Language Arts

A paragraph reads: 'Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. They reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Many homeowners now install them.' Which revision best improves cohesion?

  1. Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. Solar panels reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Solar panels are installed by many homeowners.
  2. Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity, and because they reduce reliance on fossil fuels, many homeowners now install them. Correct answer.
  3. Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. They reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Many homeowners now install them.
  4. Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity; they reduce reliance on fossil fuels; many homeowners now install them.

Explanation

Cohesion improves when related ideas are linked with logical connectives that show cause and effect. Combining the sentences with 'because' makes the relationship between the benefits and the adoption explicit.

Question 42English Language Arts

A writer claims, 'Our school should ban plastic water bottles because they harm the environment.' Which addition would most strengthen the argument?

  1. A quotation from a friend who agrees with the ban.
  2. Data showing the volume of plastic waste generated by the school and its disposal costs. Correct answer.
  3. A claim that other schools have nice water fountains.
  4. A statement that the writer personally dislikes plastic.

Explanation

Strong arguments rely on relevant, verifiable evidence that directly supports the claim. Specific data on waste volume and costs connect the ban to measurable environmental and financial benefits.

Question 43English Language Arts

Which sentence uses commas correctly with a nonrestrictive (nonessential) clause?

  1. My brother who lives in Denver, is visiting next week.
  2. My brother, who lives in Denver is visiting next week.
  3. My brother, who lives in Denver, is visiting next week. Correct answer.
  4. My brother who, lives in Denver is visiting next week.

Explanation

A nonrestrictive clause adds extra information and must be enclosed by commas on both sides. Here 'who lives in Denver' supplements the already-identified brother, so both commas are required.

Question 44English Language Arts

An author writes, 'The city budget was a patchwork quilt, stitched together from grants, taxes, and borrowed funds.' Which two elements does this metaphor most directly combine?

  1. A budget and a quilt Correct answer.
  2. A city and a tax
  3. A patch and a stitch
  4. A grant and a loan

Explanation

A metaphor equates two unlike things to illuminate one through the other. Here the city budget is described as a patchwork quilt, so the comparison links the budget to the quilt.

Question 45English Language Arts

Which sentence uses a gerund phrase as the subject?

  1. She ran in the park yesterday.
  2. Running in the park is her favorite exercise. Correct answer.
  3. She enjoys running in the park.
  4. The park is where she runs.

Explanation

A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun. In 'Running in the park is her favorite exercise,' the gerund phrase 'Running in the park' occupies the subject position.

Question 46English Language Arts

A student's essay argues that recess should be lengthened but also states that longer recess reduces instructional time without addressing the conflict. Which revision strategy best improves the argument?

  1. Remove the counterpoint so the essay appears consistent.
  2. Add more examples of students enjoying recess.
  3. Change the thesis to say recess length does not matter.
  4. Add a rebuttal explaining how instructional time could be preserved or why the benefits outweigh the cost. Correct answer.

Explanation

Acknowledging a counterpoint strengthens an argument only when the writer rebuts it. Addressing the trade-off between recess and instructional time shows the writer has weighed competing priorities.

Question 47English Language Arts

Read the sentence: 'Neither the principal nor the teachers was aware of the schedule change.' Which revision corrects the agreement error?

  1. Neither the principal nor the teachers were aware of the schedule change. Correct answer.
  2. Neither the principal nor the teachers has been aware of the schedule change.
  3. Neither the principal or the teachers was aware of the schedule change.
  4. Neither the principal nor the teachers is aware of the schedule change.

Explanation

With 'neither...nor,' the verb agrees with the nearer subject, which here is the plural 'teachers,' so the plural 'were' is required. The same proximity rule governs 'either...or.'

Question 48English Language Arts

A writer wants to reduce wordiness in this sentence: 'Due to the fact that the deadline was approaching, the team made the decision to work late in order to finish the project.' Which revision is most concise without losing meaning?

  1. In order to finish the project, the deadline was approaching and the team worked late.
  2. The team, because of the approaching deadline, made the decision that they would work late.
  3. Because the deadline approached, the team decided to work late to finish the project. Correct answer.
  4. Due to the fact that the deadline was approaching, the team decided to work late.

Explanation

Concise prose replaces wordy phrases like 'due to the fact that' with 'because' and 'made the decision to' with 'decided.' The revision preserves the cause and the purpose while cutting redundancy.

Question 49English Language Arts

An author writes, 'The senator's speech was a Trojan horse: it promised cooperation while concealing a plan to block the bill.' Which statement best explains how the allusion functions?

  1. It compares the senator to a horse trainer.
  2. It provides statistical evidence about the bill.
  3. It invokes a well-known story to imply deceptive concealment. Correct answer.
  4. It literally describes a statue delivered to the Senate.

Explanation

An allusion is a brief reference to a familiar cultural or literary figure that imports its associations. The Trojan horse evokes hidden danger disguised as a gift, reinforcing the claim of concealed intent.

Question 50English Language Arts

Which sentence correctly uses a colon to introduce an explanation?

  1. The team faced one obstacle: a shortage of funding. Correct answer.
  2. The team faced one obstacle; a shortage of funding.
  3. The team faced: one obstacle a shortage of funding.
  4. The team faced one obstacle, a shortage of funding.

Explanation

A colon may follow an independent clause to introduce an explanation, list, or elaboration. In the correct option, the colon follows a complete clause and introduces the explanatory phrase.