Praxis PLT: Grades K-6 key terms

The range of tasks a learner can complete with guidance from a more capable person but cannot yet do alone. Teachers target instruction within this range to maximize growth without causing frustration.

Temporary supports a teacher provides so a student can succeed on a task just beyond independent ability. Supports are gradually removed as competence grows, shifting responsibility to the learner.

Four sequential stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) describing how children's thinking changes with age. Elementary students typically reason concretely and benefit from hands-on materials before abstract symbols.

The understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance or arrangement, such as water poured into a taller glass. It typically emerges in the concrete operational stage.

A lifespan theory pairing each developmental period with a social-emotional conflict to resolve. Elementary children work on industry versus inferiority, building competence and confidence through successful effort.

A stage theory of moral reasoning moving from obedience and self-interest to social approval, law and order, and universal principles. Young children often reason at preconventional levels focused on consequences.

A model placing physiological and safety needs below belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Students who are hungry, unsafe, or socially excluded struggle to focus on academic learning.

The belief that ability develops through effort, strategy, and feedback rather than being fixed. Teachers who praise process and normalize mistakes encourage persistence.

A learner's belief in their own capability to succeed at a specific task. It grows from mastery experiences, vicarious models, encouragement, and manageable emotional arousal.

Helping students attribute success and failure to controllable factors such as effort and strategy rather than fixed ability. It supports persistence after setbacks.

Intrinsic motivation comes from interest or enjoyment of the activity itself; extrinsic motivation comes from rewards or pressures outside it. Overusing rewards can undermine existing intrinsic interest.

Behaviorist learning models in which stimuli become associated with responses (classical) or consequences shape the frequency of behavior (operant). Reinforcement increases behavior; punishment decreases it.

Adding a desirable consequence after a behavior to make that behavior more likely to recur. Effective classroom use is specific, immediate, and paired with clear behavioral expectations.

Bandura's view that people learn by observing models and the consequences of their actions. Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation determine whether observed behavior is imitated.

Demonstrating a skill or behavior so learners can observe and imitate it. Think-alouds and worked examples make expert reasoning visible to novices.

A view of learning as encoding, storing, and retrieving information through sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Working memory is limited, so chunking and rehearsal support retention.

The amount of mental effort working memory must handle at once. Teachers reduce extraneous load by simplifying materials, segmenting steps, and removing distracting details.

Grouping separate pieces of information into meaningful units so more can be held in working memory. Phone numbers and word phrases are common examples.

Awareness and regulation of one's own thinking, including planning, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating results. Teachers build it through self-questioning and reflection routines.

Applying learning from one context or problem to a new one. Near transfer stays close to the original task; far transfer requires deeper understanding and flexible use of principles.

Students acquiring English while learning academic content. Instruction should build both conversational and academic language and use supports such as visuals, sentence frames, and explicit vocabulary.

A language teaching approach linking spoken commands to physical actions. It supports comprehension and vocabulary for beginning English learners without requiring immediate speech.

Deliberately adjusting content, process, product, or environment based on readiness, interest, and learning profile. It aims to give each student appropriate challenge rather than identical work.

Proactively designing instruction with multiple means of engagement, representation, and action or expression. It reduces barriers for all learners rather than retrofitting for individuals.

Teaching a concept first with physical objects, then with pictures or drawings, then with symbols. It matches how young children build understanding, especially in mathematics.

Physical objects students handle to model concepts, such as counters, base-ten blocks, or fraction tiles. They support conceptual understanding when connected explicitly to written symbols.

A teacher-led approach with clear objectives, modeling, guided practice, and independent practice. It is efficient for foundational skills and procedural knowledge, especially for novices.

Moving from teacher modeling to shared practice to independent work. The teacher intentionally shifts cognitive work to students as their competence increases.

Students investigate authentic questions by exploring, gathering evidence, and constructing explanations. The teacher frames problems and guides rather than delivering conclusions.

Sustained work on a complex real-world question or problem culminating in a product or presentation. It integrates content areas and builds collaboration and inquiry skills.

Structured small-group work in which students depend on each other and are individually accountable. Positive interdependence and assigned roles raise engagement and achievement.

Questions that require analysis, evaluation, or creation rather than recall. They deepen thinking but should follow adequate foundational knowledge and appropriate wait time.

The pause after asking a question or after a student responds. Three to five seconds typically increases response length, participation, and quality of reasoning.

Ongoing checks of learning used to adjust teaching while learning is in progress. Examples include exit tickets, quick checks, and questioning; results inform next steps rather than grades.

Evaluation of learning at the end of a unit or period, used to judge achievement. Examples include unit tests, projects, and district benchmarks.

Validity means an assessment measures what it is intended to measure; reliability means results are consistent across occasions and scorers. Both matter when interpreting scores.

A scoring guide listing criteria and performance levels. Clear rubrics improve consistency among scorers and help students understand expectations before they begin work.

Information given to learners about their performance relative to a goal. Specific, timely, actionable feedback focused on the task improves learning more than grades or praise alone.

An accommodation changes how a student accesses learning or shows knowledge without changing expectations; a modification changes what is taught or expected. Confusing the two can lower expectations inappropriately.

A legally required plan for a student eligible for special education, specifying present levels, goals, services, accommodations, and placement. General educators must implement its supports.

A plan under federal disability law providing accommodations so a student with a disability can access the general curriculum. It does not require specialized instruction like an IEP.

A multi-tiered framework of increasingly intensive, evidence-based supports with progress monitoring. Data determine whether a student moves between tiers or is referred for evaluation.

A plan based on functional behavioral assessment that teaches replacement behaviors and adjusts antecedents and consequences. It is required when behavior impedes learning and is part of the IEP.

A systematic process to identify what triggers and maintains a problem behavior. Its findings guide a behavior intervention plan targeting the behavior's function.

Classroom routines that recognize the effects of adverse experiences and prioritize safety, predictability, relationships, and choice. It avoids punitive responses to stress-driven behavior.

A collaborative team of educators who examine student data and their own practice to improve results. Meetings focus on shared goals, evidence, and collective responsibility.

Systematically examining one's own teaching decisions and their effects to improve. Tools include lesson notes, video review, student feedback, and journaling.

Building respectful, two-way partnerships with caregivers and community organizations to support learning. Effective approaches use varied communication and invite input rather than only reporting problems.

Using students' cultures, languages, and experiences as resources for teaching while examining one's own biases. It includes diverse materials, inclusive norms, and high expectations for all.

The legal duty of educators to report suspected child abuse or neglect to designated authorities. Teachers do not investigate; they report promptly and follow district procedures.

A federal law protecting the privacy of students' education records and limiting disclosure without consent. It governs who may access records and how they are shared.

The exam task of reading a classroom situation, identifying the central issue, and choosing the most appropriate research-based action. Answers must address the stated problem rather than general good practice.