Praxis Government/Political Science key terms

The idea that legitimate government rests on an agreement among people to surrender some freedom in exchange for order and protection. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau used versions of this idea to explain political obligation.

Rights thought to belong to people simply because they are human, such as life, liberty, and property, rather than privileges granted by a government. Locke argued that governments exist to secure them.

The principle that final political authority belongs to the people, who may establish, empower, or remove their government. It grounds the idea that rulers govern with the consent of the governed.

The widespread belief that a ruler or government has the right to govern and that its commands should be obeyed. Legitimacy may rest on tradition, legality, or popular consent.

The principle that everyone, including officials, must follow publicly known laws applied fairly and predictably, rather than the arbitrary wishes of those in power. It protects rights and limits discretion.

Dividing government authority among legislative, executive, and judicial institutions so no single body holds unchecked power. Montesquieu argued that arranging power to check power protects liberty.

A political tradition stressing individual rights, limited government, equality before the law, and consent of the governed. It ranges from classical liberalism's market emphasis to modern liberalism's support for social protections.

The view that power is dispersed among many competing groups, so policy emerges from bargaining and compromise rather than from a single ruling elite. It assumes groups can organize and access government.

A system in which a constitution divides authority between a national government and state or regional governments, each with its own powers. The U.S. Constitution enumerates national powers and reserves the remainder.

Constitutional arrangements that let each branch limit the others, such as a presidential veto, Senate confirmation of appointments, and judicial review. The aim is to prevent any branch from dominating.

The authority of courts to declare acts of government unconstitutional and therefore invalid. Marbury v. Madison (1803) established this power for the U.S. Supreme Court.

Article I gives Congress power to regulate commerce among the states and with foreign nations. Broad judicial interpretation has made it a major basis for federal economic and civil rights legislation.

Article I allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its expressed powers. This implied-powers provision has supported broad federal action, including a national bank and economic regulation.

The group of state-chosen electors who formally select the president and vice president. Each state's elector count equals its congressional delegation, and most states award all electors to the statewide winner.

Drawing legislative district lines to favor a party, incumbent, or group. Courts restrict versions that dilute minority voting strength or violate equal protection, while partisan claims remain contested.

A Senate tactic of extended debate or procedural delay used to block a floor vote. Ending it requires a supermajority under cloture, giving minority senators leverage over legislation and nominations.

A stable relationship among a congressional committee, an executive agency, and an interest group that jointly shapes policy and protects shared interests. It models narrow, mutually beneficial influence.

The executive agencies and career officials who implement laws, issue rules, and deliver public services. Officials exercise discretion, raising questions about accountability and democratic control.

Individual protections against government action, such as freedoms of speech and religion and guarantees of fair procedure, largely secured by the Bill of Rights. Courts define their scope case by case.

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied most Bill of Rights protections to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause.

Constitutional guarantees of fair procedures and protection from arbitrary government action before life, liberty, or property is taken. The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments contain these guarantees.

A Fourteenth Amendment requirement that states treat people equally under the law and forbid unjustified discrimination. Courts apply different levels of scrutiny depending on the classification involved.

An organized association that tries to influence public policy on behalf of shared interests through lobbying, litigation, advertising, and election activity. Groups differ greatly in resources and access.

A regime type in which power is concentrated and not subject to meaningful electoral accountability, though some authoritarian systems permit limited pluralism or participation. Rulers govern without effective constitutional restraint.

A system in which the executive, usually a prime minister and cabinet, is drawn from and accountable to the legislature and can be removed by a no-confidence vote.

A system in which a separately elected president serves as both head of state and head of government and cannot be removed by the legislature through a confidence vote.

A country where the central government holds ultimate authority and regional governments, if any, exist only at its discretion. Authority may be devolved without being constitutionally protected.

A country in which a constitution divides power between a central government and regional units that have protected authority and cannot be abolished unilaterally by the center.

An electoral system that awards legislative seats roughly in proportion to each party's vote share, often through party lists or multi-member districts. It tends to produce multiparty systems and coalition governments.

An electoral district that elects exactly one representative, usually by plurality or majority vote. Such districts tend to encourage competition between two major parties.

An arrangement in which two or more parties share cabinet posts and governing responsibility, usually because no single party holds a legislative majority. Coalitions require continuing negotiation.

The process by which democracy becomes stable and widely accepted, with durable institutions, routine transfers of power, and effective protection of rights and liberties.

The condition in international politics in which no central authority stands above states to enforce rules. It means self-help and uncertainty about others' intentions, not necessarily chaos.

The principle that a state has supreme authority within its territory and legal independence from outside control. It underpins noninterference norms and membership in the international system.

A pattern in which states build capabilities or form alliances to prevent any one state or coalition from becoming dominant. It is both a description of behavior and a prescription for stability.

Persuading an adversary not to act by convincing it that the costs and risks of action outweigh expected gains. Nuclear deterrence relies on the threat of devastating retaliation.

A situation in which one state's efforts to increase its security make other states feel less secure, prompting them to arm in response and leaving everyone worse off.

A school of thought holding that states pursue power and security in an anarchic world, and that national interest and material capabilities shape behavior more than ideals or institutions.

A perspective emphasizing that trade, international institutions, democracy, and law can reduce conflict and promote cooperation among states. It is more optimistic about progress than realism.

The ability to influence others through attraction rather than coercion or payment, drawing on culture, values, and the perceived legitimacy of policies.