Praxis Special Education: Early Childhood/Early Intervention cheat sheet

Piaget's sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years): object permanence emerges around 8–12 months; circular reactions progress from primary (self) to secondary (environment) to tertiary (experimentation).

Erikson's early psychosocial stages: trust vs. mistrust (0–18 months), autonomy vs. shame/doubt (18 months–3 years), initiative vs. guilt (3–6 years).

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD): the gap between independent performance and performance with adult/peer scaffolding; private speech becomes inner speech.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems: microsystem (family, classroom), mesosystem (interactions among microsystems), exosystem (parent's workplace), macrosystem (culture), chronosystem (time).

Maslow's hierarchy for early learners: physiological and safety needs precede belonging, esteem, and self-actualization; unmet lower needs suppress learning engagement.

Language milestones: cooing (2–3 months), babbling (6–9 months), first words (12–18 months), two-word combinations (18–24 months), 50-word vocabulary and telegraphic speech by 24 months.

Motor milestones: head control (3–4 months), independent sitting (6–8 months), crawling (8–10 months), walking (12–15 months), running and stair climbing (18–24 months).

Attachment patterns (Ainsworth): secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant/ambivalent, disorganized; secure attachment predicts better self-regulation and social competence.

Brain development: synaptic pruning and myelination accelerate in the first 3 years; serve-and-return interactions build neural connections; toxic stress elevates cortisol and impairs executive function.

IDEA Part C requires a multidisciplinary IFSP team that includes the parent, service coordinator, and professionals; the parent is a full team member and decision-maker.

Family Systems Theory (Turnbull): family characteristics, interaction, functions, life cycle, and resources influence child outcomes; interventions target family-identified priorities.

Routines-based intervention: embed strategies in everyday activities (meals, bath, play) rather than creating separate therapy sessions; increases generalization and family capacity.

Cultural reciprocity (Harry): professionals examine their own cultural assumptions, learn the family's perspective, acknowledge differences, and negotiate a mutually agreeable approach.

Family capacity-building: use coaching, modeling, and reflective questions to strengthen caregiver competence and confidence rather than creating dependency on the professional.

IFSP outcomes must be functional, measurable, and written in the family's words; they describe participation in daily life, not discrete developmental skills in isolation.

Informed consent: families must receive complete information in their native language, understand voluntary participation, and may withdraw consent at any time without penalty.

Natural environments: IDEA Part C services are provided in home, childcare, or community settings where same-age peers without disabilities participate, unless justification is documented.

IDEA Part C eligibility: infant/toddler under 3 with a developmental delay or established condition with high probability of delay; states define delay criteria (e.g., 25% or 1.5 SD below mean in one or more domains).

IDEA Part B eligibility (ages 3–21): one of 13 disability categories and a need for specially designed instruction; a developmental delay category is available in many states for ages 3–9.

Evaluation must use multiple measures, be administered in the child's native language or mode of communication, and be validated for the purpose used; no single procedure determines eligibility.

Screening vs. evaluation: screening identifies children who may need further assessment; it is not used to determine eligibility or to delay a full evaluation.

Norm-referenced tests compare a child to same-age peers; criterion-referenced tests compare performance to a defined standard or set of skills; curriculum-based measurement tracks progress over time.

Standard error of measurement (SEM) and confidence intervals: a score is a range, not a fixed point; overlapping confidence intervals may indicate no meaningful difference between scores.

Assessment bias: check for cultural and linguistic bias, use dynamic assessment and test-teach-retest when static measures may underestimate ability, and involve interpreters as needed.

Authentic assessment: observation, portfolios, work samples, and caregiver interviews capture functioning in natural settings and complement standardized tools.

Timeline: Part C initial evaluation and assessment within 45 calendar days of referral; Part B initial evaluation within 60 calendar days of parental consent (state exceptions apply).

Embedded instruction: identify target skills, then plan multiple distributed trials within existing routines and activities rather than massed discrete trials.

Prompt hierarchy: least-to-most (independent, verbal, gesture, model, physical) or most-to-least; fade prompts systematically to avoid prompt dependency.

Task analysis: break a complex skill into smaller observable steps; teach forward chaining, backward chaining, or whole-task presentation based on the learner.

Discrete trial teaching (DTT): massed, adult-directed trials with clear antecedent, response, and consequence; best for acquisition of discrete skills, not for generalization alone.

Naturalistic teaching: incidental teaching, milieu teaching, and pivotal response training follow the child's lead and reinforce communication attempts within play.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL): multiple means of engagement, representation, and action/expression; plan for variability rather than retrofitting accommodations.

Positive behavior support (PBS): identify function of behavior, teach replacement skills, alter antecedents, and reinforce desired behavior; punishment alone does not teach new skills.

Data-based decision making: collect frequent, graphed data; change intervention when the trend is flat or worsening across several data points, not after a single session.

IEP/IFSP goals: measurable, observable, and include condition, behavior, and criterion; align with state early learning standards and family priorities.

Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP): match expectations to age and individual characteristics, and respond to the social and cultural context of each child.

Environment design: clear boundaries, low shelving, accessible materials, defined activity zones, and quiet spaces reduce challenging behavior and support independent play.

Visual supports: picture schedules, first-then boards, and visual rules increase predictability and reduce anxiety for young children with communication delays.

Social-emotional teaching: model and label emotions, use feeling charts, teach calming strategies (breathing, cozy corner), and coach peer conflict resolution.

Positive guidance: redirection, choices, natural and logical consequences, and descriptive praise; avoid shaming, threats, and physical punishment.

Inclusive classroom: adapt materials, peer supports, and routines so children with disabilities participate meaningfully in all activities alongside typically developing peers.

Transitions: warn children before changes, use songs or timers, and keep routines consistent; transitions are a common trigger for challenging behavior.

Trauma-informed practice: predictable routines, safe relationships, and regulation support help children with adverse experiences; avoid punitive responses to stress-driven behavior.

Confidentiality: FERPA protects education records; HIPAA protects health information; share only on a need-to-know basis and obtain written consent for release.

Team collaboration: co-teaching models include one teach/one observe, station teaching, parallel teaching, alternative teaching, and team teaching.

Consultation vs. coaching: consultation gives advice; coaching builds capacity through observation, modeling, and reflective feedback and is preferred in early intervention.

Ethical standards: Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) code emphasizes dignity, confidentiality, evidence-based practice, and advocacy for children and families.

Evidence-based practice: use peer-reviewed research, professional judgment, and family values; avoid fad interventions without empirical support.

Transitions: Part C to Part B requires a transition plan by age 2 years 9 months (or state timeline), a transition conference, and referral to the school district.

Reflective supervision: regular, structured reflection on practice with a supervisor improves decision-making and reduces burnout in early childhood settings.

Advocacy: professionals support families in navigating systems, understanding rights, and accessing resources; they do not make decisions for families.

Documentation: objective, behavioral, and timely notes support communication, legal protection, and continuity of services across providers.