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QABA QASP-S study materials
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QABA QASP-S practice questions

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Question 1Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner assumes that every behavior has identifiable causes that can be discovered through careful analysis. Which assumption of behavior analysis does this reflect?

  1. Determinism Correct answer.
  2. Parsimony
  3. Selectionism
  4. Empiricism

Explanation

Determinism is the assumption that behavior is lawful and that its causes can be identified, which is exactly what the practitioner's search for causes reflects. The other assumptions address how we come to know about behavior, how simply we should explain it, and how behavior is selected over time.

Question 2Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A behavior analyst bases conclusions only on objective, directly observed and measured data rather than on opinion or authority. This best illustrates which assumption?

  1. Empiricism Correct answer.
  2. Mentalism
  3. Selectionism
  4. Parsimony

Explanation

Empiricism is the assumption that knowledge comes from objective observation and measurement of the phenomenon under study. Relying on data rather than opinion or authority is the defining feature of an empirical approach.

Question 3Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Two hypotheses explain a client's behavior equally well. The practitioner selects the simpler, more straightforward explanation. Which assumption is being applied?

  1. Empiricism
  2. Philosophic doubt
  3. Parsimony Correct answer.
  4. Determinism

Explanation

Parsimony is the rule that, when competing explanations account for the data equally well, the simpler one is preferred. It guides theory choice rather than the collection of data or the questioning of findings.

Question 4Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Which sequence represents the three-term contingency?

  1. Stimulus – stimulus – response
  2. Response – consequence – antecedent
  3. Motivating operation – response – punisher
  4. Antecedent – behavior – consequence Correct answer.

Explanation

The three-term contingency describes the relation among an antecedent stimulus, the behavior, and the consequence that follows it. This arrangement is the basic unit of operant analysis.

Question 5Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Which set of elements must be included when obtaining informed consent for behavior-analytic services?

  1. The signature of the learner alone, dated at intake
  2. Procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives Correct answer.
  3. A verbal agreement witnessed by a co-worker
  4. A guarantee of improvement and a fee schedule only

Explanation

Informed consent requires that the person authorized to consent understand the nature of the procedures, the potential risks and benefits, and the available alternatives, and that the agreement be documented. Consent is more than a signature or a verbal nod.

Question 6Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

During a home session, a QASP-S observes unexplained bruises and the child reports being hit at home. What is the most appropriate action?

  1. Ask the caregiver to explain before doing anything else.
  2. Document the observation and re-check the bruises next week.
  3. Report the concern to the designated child protection agency. Correct answer.
  4. Discuss the concern with a colleague and wait for guidance.

Explanation

Practitioners are mandated reporters: suspicion of abuse must be reported promptly to the designated agency, and the duty is personal and cannot be delegated. Verifying with the family or waiting for consultation delays a legally required report.

Question 7Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A QASP-S is asked to implement a feeding protocol involving thickened liquids for a child with dysphagia. The practitioner has no training in this area. The most ethical response is to:

  1. Accept the case and learn the procedure while implementing it.
  2. Accept the case but limit data collection to mealtime behavior.
  3. Accept the case because the supervisor will review the data.
  4. Decline and refer to a qualified professional. Correct answer.

Explanation

Practitioners must work within their scope of competence and refer when a case requires training and supervised experience they do not have. Implementing a medically complex procedure without competence risks harm to the client.

Question 8Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner receives a request from the client's school for information about services. Before releasing any information, the practitioner must:

  1. Ask the school to request the information in writing first.
  2. Obtain written consent from the client or guardian. Correct answer.
  3. Provide a summary of the treatment plan only, without consent.
  4. Provide the information because schools are entitled to it.

Explanation

Confidential client information may be disclosed only with proper authorization from the client or guardian, or under a specific legal exception. A request from another agency does not itself authorize disclosure.

Question 9Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A client's parent asks the QASP-S to provide weekend babysitting for an hourly fee. The practitioner should:

  1. Decline and explain the multiple-relationship concern. Correct answer.
  2. Accept, since extra support benefits the family.
  3. Accept only if the arrangement is documented in the treatment plan.
  4. Accept but keep the arrangement private from the supervisor.

Explanation

Entering a second, non-clinical relationship with a client family creates a multiple relationship that can compromise objectivity and client welfare. The ethically appropriate response is to decline and explain the concern transparently.

Question 10Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

At the end of services, a family presents the practitioner with an expensive watch as thanks. The most ethical course of action is to:

  1. Accept it quietly so the family's feelings are not hurt.
  2. Accept it and report the gift on the next tax filing.
  3. Accept it and share it with the treatment team.
  4. Decline politely and explain the relevant policy. Correct answer.

Explanation

Accepting gifts of substantial value can create a conflict of interest and blur professional boundaries, so the practitioner should decline respectfully and explain the policy. Cultural context and the family's intentions can be acknowledged without accepting the item.

Question 11Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A family prefers that intervention sessions be scheduled around religious observance and requests that certain foods not be used as reinforcers. The practitioner should:

  1. Refer the family to a different provider who shares their faith.
  2. Explain that such requests cannot be accommodated in treatment.
  3. Follow the standard protocol, since clinical decisions are not cultural.
  4. Incorporate the family's preferences into the plan. Correct answer.

Explanation

Culturally responsive practice means identifying and incorporating family values, preferences, and routines into intervention, which improves acceptability and outcomes. Accommodating reasonable preferences does not require abandoning effective procedures.

Question 12Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Obtaining assent from a young learner means:

  1. Waiting until the learner reaches the age of majority.
  2. Documenting that the learner did not actively resist procedures.
  3. Securing a legal guardian's signature on the consent form.
  4. Seeking the learner's agreement in an understandable way. Correct answer.

Explanation

Assent is the learner's affirmative agreement to participate, sought in a manner that matches the learner's comprehension level. It is distinct from legal consent, which is provided by a guardian.

Question 13Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

When selecting a behavior-reduction procedure, a practitioner's first consideration should be whether the procedure:

  1. Has been used by colleagues in similar cases
  2. Produces rapid suppression of the behavior
  3. Can be implemented by the family without training
  4. Is the least restrictive effective option Correct answer.

Explanation

Intervention selection begins with the least restrictive procedure likely to be effective, favoring skill-building and reinforcement-based options. Speed of suppression or convenience does not justify a more restrictive procedure.

Question 14Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A team proposes a punishment-based procedure for a dangerous behavior. Before implementation, the practitioner must verify that:

  1. The behavior is dangerous enough to justify any procedure
  2. Reinforcement-based alternatives were tried and documented Correct answer.
  3. The procedure can be carried out quickly and consistently by available staff
  4. The caregiver has requested the procedure in writing

Explanation

Restrictive or punishment-based procedures are justified only after less restrictive, reinforcement-based alternatives have been implemented and documented as insufficient. Additional safeguards include informed consent, oversight, and ongoing data monitoring.

Question 15Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner posts a video of a client's successful session on a personal social media account with the client's face blurred. The main ethical problem is that:

  1. Sharing any success story about a client is prohibited under all circumstances
  2. Session videos may be posted only with supervisor approval, which was not obtained
  3. Blurring does not ensure the client cannot be identified Correct answer.
  4. Personal social media accounts should never be used by practitioners for any purpose

Explanation

Confidentiality requires protecting the client's identity, and blurring a face may be insufficient when context, clothing, or setting allows identification. Posting also requires appropriate authorization, but the core risk here is inadvertent identification.

Question 16Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

The minimum necessary standard requires that a practitioner disclosing protected health information:

  1. Share records only after the consent document has expired
  2. Share all records so the receiving provider has full context
  3. Share records only with the client's employer
  4. Limit disclosure to the information needed for the purpose Correct answer.

Explanation

The minimum necessary standard limits protected health information to the least amount required to accomplish the intended purpose. It governs the amount and content of the disclosure rather than the timing or the recipient's identity alone.

Question 17Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A QASP-S is invited to serve on a committee that selects vendors, and the practitioner holds stock in one of the competing companies. The practitioner should:

  1. Vote but mention the stock holding afterwards
  2. Sell the stock after the committee's decision is made
  3. Stay on the committee and abstain from the discussion only
  4. Disclose the financial interest and recuse from voting Correct answer.

Explanation

Conflicts of interest must be disclosed and removed, which here means stepping out of the decision process. Disclosing after the fact or partial abstention leaves the conflict in place during the vote.

Question 18Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner wants to publish outcome data collected during routine service delivery. Which step is required before submission?

  1. Publish under a pseudonym to protect the participants' identity
  2. Nothing extra, because the data were collected for clinical purposes
  3. Obtain consent and institutional approval and de-identify the data Correct answer.
  4. Ask the caregivers to co-author the manuscript as a courtesy

Explanation

Using clinical data for publication requires appropriate authorization, institutional or ethical review, and removal of identifying information. The fact that the data already exist for clinical purposes does not exempt the practitioner from these safeguards.

Question 19Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A funding source ends abruptly and a client can no longer receive services. The practitioner's most ethical action is to:

  1. Keep the client on the caseload without documentation
  2. Plan a transition and provide appropriate referrals Correct answer.
  3. Stop all contact immediately, since the case is closed
  4. Continue billing the family directly without a new agreement

Explanation

When services end, the practitioner must avoid abandonment by planning a transition, summarizing progress, and offering referrals. Abrupt termination without these steps is an ethical violation.

Question 20Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Radical behaviorism is distinguished by its position that:

  1. Only publicly observable behavior can be studied scientifically
  2. Private events are behavior subject to the same analysis Correct answer.
  3. Private events are outside the scope of behavior analysis
  4. Cognitive processes are the primary cause of behavior

Explanation

Radical behaviorism includes thoughts and feelings as behavior to be explained with the same principles used for observable behavior. It does not exclude private events, nor does it treat them as causes.

Question 21Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A child's heart rate rises when the dental drill starts because the sound has repeatedly been paired with discomfort. The change in heart rate is best classified as:

  1. Contingency-shaped behavior
  2. Rule-governed behavior
  3. Respondent behavior Correct answer.
  4. Operant behavior

Explanation

Respondent behavior is elicited by antecedent stimuli and is acquired through pairing of stimuli, as in this conditioned emotional response. Operant behavior, by contrast, is controlled primarily by its consequences.

Question 22Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner routinely asks whether the current intervention is actually working rather than assuming it will work because it helped a previous client, and changes course when the data suggest otherwise. This reflects:

  1. Pragmatism
  2. Determinism
  3. Philosophic doubt Correct answer.
  4. Parsimony

Explanation

Philosophic doubt is the continuing skepticism about the truthfulness of facts and the willingness to set aside strongly held beliefs when data call them into question. It is the assumption that underlies ongoing data-based decision making.

Question 23Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A client's speech-language pathologist asks for a summary of the behavior plan. The practitioner should:

  1. Ask the speech-language pathologist to attend a team meeting instead
  2. Send the full record immediately to support collaboration
  3. Obtain consent and share only the relevant information Correct answer.
  4. Refuse, because behavior plans are confidential in all circumstances

Explanation

Coordinated care requires sharing relevant information with other providers once proper authorization is in place. Sharing only what is relevant also respects the minimum necessary principle.

Question 24Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

The view that behavior is selected by its consequences, both over the lifetime of the individual and over the history of the species, is known as:

  1. Selectionism Correct answer.
  2. Determinism
  3. Empiricism
  4. Mentalism

Explanation

Selectionism holds that behavior is selected by consequences at both the ontogenetic (individual) and phylogenetic (species) levels. It is the assumption that explains how repertoires come to be rather than how we observe or explain them.

Question 25Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Evidence-based practice in behavior analysis requires the practitioner to integrate:

  1. Agency policy, insurance rules, and staff availability
  2. Research, clinical expertise, and client values Correct answer.
  3. The practitioner's preferred approach and past experience
  4. Published meta-analyses only, regardless of client context

Explanation

Evidence-based practice integrates the best available research evidence, the practitioner's clinical expertise, and the client's values, preferences, and circumstances. Using only one of these sources is not sufficient.

Question 26Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

In the seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis described by Baer, Wolf, and Risley, the dimension of "applied" refers to the extent to which:

  1. the analysis shows which variables control the behavior
  2. the behavior change is large enough to be noticed by caregivers
  3. the target behavior is socially significant for the client Correct answer.
  4. the procedures are described precisely enough for others to replicate them

Explanation

In the Baer, Wolf, and Risley framework, "applied" concerns the social importance of the behavior being changed, not the methods or measurement. The remaining dimensions address technological precision, effectiveness, and analytic control.

Question 27Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

The primary purpose of a professional code of ethics for behavior analysts is to:

  1. settle disputes between competing service providers
  2. standardize the billing rates charged across agencies
  3. increase the earning potential of certified practitioners
  4. protect the welfare of clients and the public Correct answer.

Explanation

A professional code of ethics exists to guide practitioners and to safeguard clients and the public from harm. It is not a business tool for setting fees or resolving commercial disputes.

Question 28Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A QASP-S is asked to design a treatment plan for a condition they have never been trained to address. The most appropriate first step is to:

  1. decline all future cases in that general area permanently
  2. seek training or supervision, or refer the client Correct answer.
  3. accept the case and learn the procedures while working
  4. ask the family to sign a waiver accepting the risk

Explanation

Practitioners must work within their scope of competence and obtain additional training, supervision, or referral when a case exceeds it. Learning on an unsupervised client and relying on a waiver both place the client at risk.

Question 29Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

Which element is essential for informed consent to be considered valid?

  1. the consent is obtained only once, at the start of services
  2. the consent is voluntary, informed, and ongoing Correct answer.
  3. the consent is given by whoever is paying for the service
  4. the consent is documented in a signed contract that cannot be changed

Explanation

Valid consent must be given freely, based on understandable information, and revisited as services change. Consent is not a one-time signature, and it must come from the person with authority to give it.

Question 30Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A QASP-S lives in a small community and is asked to provide services to the child of a close personal friend. The practitioner should:

  1. decline and help identify an appropriate alternative provider Correct answer.
  2. accept the case only if the friend signs an additional consent form
  3. accept the case but avoid discussing it with the friend socially
  4. accept the case because the family will be more comfortable with a friend

Explanation

Providing clinical services to a close friend's child creates a multiple relationship that can compromise objectivity and client welfare. When feasible, the practitioner should avoid the conflict and assist with referral.

Question 31Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A supervisor asks a QASP-S to sign a verification form stating that supervision hours were completed, although several sessions were never held. The practitioner should:

  1. sign the form but note the missing sessions in a personal file
  2. sign the form because the supervisor has more experience
  3. refuse to sign and report the discrepancy through proper channels Correct answer.
  4. ask the supervisor to sign a statement taking full responsibility

Explanation

Signing a false verification record is dishonest and misrepresents supervised experience. The practitioner must refuse and report the discrepancy through the appropriate organizational or credentialing channels.

Question 32Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner realizes at the end of the week that session notes for two clients were never written. The most ethical action is to:

  1. leave the notes blank and wait for the next session to summarize
  2. ask a colleague to write the notes from a brief verbal summary
  3. write them promptly as late entries and note the delay Correct answer.
  4. write the notes as though they were completed on the session day

Explanation

Documentation should be timely and accurate; when a delay occurs, the practitioner should complete the record promptly and identify it as a late entry. Backdating or having someone else document services they did not provide is falsification.

Question 33Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner needs to discuss a client's progress with a caregiver in a busy clinic waiting room. The best action is to:

  1. discuss the case later by posting a general update online
  2. speak quietly so that only nearby people can hear
  3. use the client's first name only to reduce identification
  4. move to a private space before discussing the client Correct answer.

Explanation

Confidential information should be discussed only where others cannot reasonably overhear it. Lowering volume or using a first name does not adequately protect privacy in a public area.

Question 34Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A family speaks limited English and a bilingual relative offers to interpret during consent and treatment discussions. The practitioner should:

  1. accept the relative's help because it will make the family comfortable
  2. use a qualified interpreter and confirm understanding with the family Correct answer.
  3. delay all services until the family learns enough English
  4. proceed in English and give the family written materials to read later

Explanation

Language access is part of ethical and competent service delivery; a qualified interpreter supports accurate communication and valid consent. Relying on a relative can distort information and breach confidentiality.

Question 35Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A client's family is moving to another state in six weeks. The practitioner's best response is to:

  1. plan generalization, summarize progress, and identify new providers Correct answer.
  2. end services immediately so the family can focus on the move
  3. ask the family to sign a new one-year service agreement before moving
  4. continue the same program by phone indefinitely without new consent

Explanation

Ethical transition planning includes preparing the client for the change, summarizing progress, and helping arrange appropriate ongoing services. Abrupt termination or unauthorized continuation across state lines is not appropriate.

Question 36Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

An agency administrator pressures a practitioner to keep a client in services after the treatment goals have been met, because the insurance authorization still has funds remaining. The practitioner should:

  1. continue until the authorization expires because funding is limited
  2. base discharge or continued service on client need, not funding Correct answer.
  3. reduce session frequency but keep the same goals for billing purposes
  4. continue services and add new goals that the client does not need

Explanation

Service decisions must be driven by client need and clinical benefit, not by available funding. Maintaining unnecessary services or goals to use remaining authorization is unethical.

Question 37Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A practitioner reads one small, unpublished study supporting a new intervention and wants to adopt it for all clients. The most defensible approach is to:

  1. wait until a colleague in the agency tries it first
  2. review the broader evidence and the fit for each client first Correct answer.
  3. reject it because unpublished studies have no value
  4. adopt it immediately because new research is usually better

Explanation

Evidence-based practice requires weighing the full body of evidence, client characteristics, and contextual fit rather than relying on a single study. A colleague's trial is not a substitute for critical appraisal.

Question 38Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

The behavior-analytic assumption of determinism holds that:

  1. mental states are the primary causes of overt behavior
  2. behavior is lawful and occurs as a result of identifiable variables Correct answer.
  3. individuals freely choose most of their actions without external influence
  4. only observable events can be studied, while private events are ignored

Explanation

Determinism is the assumption that behavior is lawful and controlled by identifiable variables, even when those variables are complex. It does not deny private events or claim that behavior is random.

Question 39Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

In behavior analysis, pragmatism is best described as the view that:

  1. scientific statements must be verified through logical deduction alone
  2. theories are valuable only when they describe internal mental structures
  3. an idea is true to the extent that it works in practice Correct answer.
  4. behavior should be explained by the simplest mentalistic account available

Explanation

Pragmatism evaluates concepts by their practical consequences and usefulness in prediction and control of behavior. It does not require correspondence to internal mental structures or deductive proof alone.

Question 40Foundations and Professional Conduct (including ethics)

A QASP-S who supervises a trainee is asked by the trainee to begin a romantic relationship. According to ethical standards regarding multiple relationships, the practitioner should:

  1. keep the relationship secret until the supervision period ends
  2. end supervision and then begin the relationship immediately
  3. agree only if the trainee initiates the relationship outside of work
  4. decline the relationship while the supervisory role continues Correct answer.

Explanation

Supervisory relationships carry a power differential that makes romantic involvement ethically problematic. The practitioner should decline while the supervisory role exists and avoid secrecy, which compounds the conflict.

Question 41Assessment and Data Collection

Which measurement procedure records every instance of a discrete behavior as it occurs during the observation period?

  1. Whole-interval recording
  2. Partial-interval recording
  3. Momentary time sampling
  4. Event recording Correct answer.

Explanation

Event recording tallies each occurrence of a discrete response as it happens, so the observer captures every instance within the observation. Interval and time-sampling systems sample only portions of the session and yield estimates rather than complete counts.

Question 42Assessment and Data Collection

A therapist starts a stopwatch when the instruction "line up" is delivered and stops it when the student takes the first step toward the line. Which behavior dimension is being measured?

  1. Latency Correct answer.
  2. Interresponse time
  3. Rate of responding
  4. Duration per occurrence

Explanation

Latency is the elapsed time between the onset of an instruction or stimulus and the beginning of the response. Timing stops when the response starts, so it does not capture how long the response itself lasts.

Question 43Assessment and Data Collection

A student flaps his hands in many short bursts across the school day, and the team wants to know the total amount of time per day he spends engaged in flapping. Which measure fits this question?

  1. Duration recording Correct answer.
  2. Latency to the first instance
  3. Momentary time sampling
  4. Frequency count of bursts

Explanation

Duration recording measures the total elapsed time the learner engages in the behavior, which is the relevant dimension when the concern is time engaged rather than number of episodes. It requires continuous timing of each episode and summing across the day.

Question 44Assessment and Data Collection

A teacher wants to know how many math problems a student completes correctly each morning without anyone watching the student work. Which recording method is most suitable?

  1. Latency recording
  2. Event recording
  3. Permanent product Correct answer.
  4. Momentary time sampling

Explanation

Permanent product recording measures the tangible outcome of behavior after the fact, so no observer needs to be present while the response occurs. Completed worksheets are a natural permanent product of academic responding.

Question 45Assessment and Data Collection

An observer scores an interval whenever the target behavior occurs at any time during that interval, even briefly. What is the likely effect on the resulting data?

  1. It will probably overestimate the behavior Correct answer.
  2. It will be an exact count of each response
  3. It will measure only total time engaged
  4. It will probably underestimate the behavior

Explanation

Because an interval is scored when the behavior occurs at any point within it, one brief response can mark the whole interval as engaged. Totals therefore tend to exceed the true amount of behavior.

Question 46Assessment and Data Collection

An observer scores an interval only when the target behavior continues throughout the entire interval. What is the likely effect on the resulting data?

  1. It will provide an exact count of responses
  2. It will probably underestimate the behavior Correct answer.
  3. It will measure the time from instruction to response
  4. It will probably overestimate the behavior

Explanation

Whole-interval recording credits an interval only when behavior spans the full interval, so any pause causes the interval to be scored as no behavior. The resulting estimate typically falls below the true amount.

Question 47Assessment and Data Collection

A consultant must collect data on five students in one busy classroom and has no additional observers. Which measurement approach is most practical?

  1. Continuous event recording for each student
  2. Latency recording for each student
  3. Momentary time sampling Correct answer.
  4. Duration recording for each student

Explanation

Momentary time sampling requires only a brief glance at the end of each interval, so a single observer can cycle through several students. The trade-off is that it estimates rather than fully records behavior.

Question 48Assessment and Data Collection

Which measure captures the time between the end of one response and the start of the next?

  1. Rate
  2. Latency
  3. Interresponse time Correct answer.
  4. Duration per occurrence

Explanation

Interresponse time is the gap between the end of one response and the start of the next, indexing how tightly responses are paced. It is especially useful for behaviors that occur in bouts.

Question 49Assessment and Data Collection

What is the primary function of baseline data in a behavioral program?

  1. It identifies the function of the problem behavior
  2. It provides the comparison for judging treatment effects Correct answer.
  3. It shows that generalization has occurred
  4. It proves the intervention was implemented correctly

Explanation

Baseline describes performance under current conditions before intervention and serves as the standard against which later change is judged. Without a baseline, improvement cannot be attributed to the treatment.

Question 50Assessment and Data Collection

In which preference assessment are two items presented at a time, with the item reached for delivered to the learner?

  1. Free-operant assessment
  2. Single-stimulus assessment
  3. Multiple stimulus without replacement
  4. Paired-choice assessment Correct answer.

Explanation

In a paired-choice assessment items are presented two at a time across trials, and the relative number of selections generates a preference hierarchy. The forced choice between two items makes the comparison direct.