Civil Service Verbal Test key terms

The central point a passage is built around, which its other sentences explain, support or illustrate. Finding it means deciding what the writer most wants you to take away.

A fact, example or reason inside a passage that backs up or illustrates its main idea, rather than standing as a separate point of its own.

The attitude a writer conveys towards the subject or the reader, such as critical, neutral, amused or urgent, usually shown through word choice rather than stated directly.

The reason a text was written, for instance to inform, persuade, instruct or warn. Purpose shapes which details are included and how they are worded.

The way a passage is organised, such as a sequence, a comparison, a problem with its solution, or a chain of causes and effects.

A slant in how information is chosen and presented, favouring one view over another, often without the writer openly declaring a position.

A conclusion a reader draws by combining evidence in the text with background knowledge, when the writer hints at something rather than stating it outright.

A meaning a statement carries or commits the writer to without saying it directly; working it out is what examiners call reading between the lines.

The words, sentences and situation surrounding a particular word or statement, which together show which of its possible meanings is intended.

A hint in the surrounding sentence, such as a definition, example, contrast or synonym, that lets a reader work out the meaning of an unfamiliar word.

The emotional colouring or associations a word carries beyond its literal sense, such as describing someone as confident rather than as arrogant.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, considered apart from any emotional colouring or associations it may also carry.

The quality of wording that can reasonably be understood in more than one way, so the meaning depends on context or stays genuinely uncertain.

A word that means nearly the same as another. Exact equivalents are rare, because words usually differ in tone, formality or precise scope.

Words chosen to stir emotion or push the reader towards a judgement, often slipping an opinion into what looks like a plain factual statement.

The arrangement of words and phrases into sentences, and the rules governing that arrangement. Awkward syntax obscures meaning even when every individual word is correct.

A group of words containing its own subject and verb. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence; a subordinate clause cannot.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person, so a singular subject takes a singular verb even when other words come between them.

The noun or noun phrase that a pronoun refers back to. When the antecedent is unclear or mismatched, the sentence becomes confusing or ambiguous.

A word, phrase or clause that describes or limits another part of the sentence. Placed too far from its target, it can seem to describe the wrong thing.

An opening descriptive phrase with no sensible word to attach to in the main clause, so the sentence appears to credit the action to the wrong thing.

Using the same grammatical form for items in a list or comparison. Matching forms read smoothly; mixing them creates a jarring, unbalanced sentence.

A word or phrase such as however, therefore or in contrast that signals the logical relationship between one sentence or paragraph and the next.

A stated reason or piece of evidence offered in support of a conclusion; the starting point an argument asks the reader to accept.

The claim an argument sets out to establish, which its premises are meant to support; also the judgement a passage leads the reader towards.

An unstated belief an argument depends on in order to reach its conclusion. If the assumption is false, the reasoning fails even when every stated premise is true.

The property of an argument whose conclusion must follow from its premises. Validity concerns structure alone and says nothing about whether the premises are actually true.

The property of an argument that is valid and also has all true premises. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.

Reasoning in which the conclusion follows necessarily from the premises, so that true premises cannot lead to a false conclusion.

Reasoning from particular observations towards a broader general claim. The conclusion is only probable, however many supporting cases have been found.

A pattern of reasoning that is unreliable yet often persuasive, such as attacking a person instead of their argument, or assuming that one event caused another.

A single case showing that a general claim or argument form fails. One clear exception is enough to defeat a statement that allows no exceptions.

A broad statement applied to a whole group on the strength of limited examples; it is hasty when drawn from too few or unrepresentative cases.

A measured association in which two things tend to occur together. On its own it does not show that either one brings about the other.

A relationship in which one factor actually produces another. It is harder to establish than correlation and needs evidence beyond events merely occurring together.

A fault in reasoning in which a word shifts meaning between the premises, making an argument look valid when its parts do not actually connect.

A short restatement of the essential points of a text in the reader's own words, leaving out examples and detail while keeping the overall sense.

A rewording of a passage that keeps its meaning and most of its detail but changes the phrasing, usually to clarify it or to check understanding.

Combining information from two or more sources into a single coherent account, showing where they agree, where they differ and how they fit together.

The way sentences and paragraphs are tied together so a text reads as a whole, achieved through linking words, repeated key terms and consistent reference.