AF Commercial Driving Theory cheat sheet
AF Commercial Driving Theory · Keep the key ideas within reach.
Road Traffic Rules and Regulations
Speed limits: motorways 120 km/h, national roads 100 km/h, regional roads 80 km/h, built-up areas 50 km/h (general AF defaults; posted signs override).
Minimum following distance: at least 2 seconds in normal conditions; double to 4 seconds in rain, ice, fog or darkness.
Overtaking is prohibited at pedestrian crossings, level crossings, on blind bends and where a solid line separates lanes.
Right-hand traffic: overtake on the left; a vehicle may be passed on the right only when the vehicle ahead is turning left.
Give way to traffic already on a roundabout; yield to vehicles approaching from the right at unmarked equal junctions.
Maximum permitted blood alcohol for professional drivers is generally 0.0–0.2 g/L; commercial drivers face stricter limits than private drivers.
At a stop sign the vehicle must come to a complete halt at the stop line and yield before entering the junction.
A driver must signal intention at least 30 m before a manoeuvre in built-up areas and earlier at higher speeds.
Traffic Signs, Signals and Road Markings
Red-bordered triangles = danger/warning; red-bordered circles = prohibition; blue circles = mandatory instruction; blue squares/rectangles = information.
Octagonal red sign = STOP (complete stop required); inverted red triangle = GIVE WAY (yield, stop only if needed).
Solid white centre line: no crossing or overtaking; broken line: crossing allowed when safe; double solid: neither direction may cross.
Zigzag markings near pedestrian crossings prohibit parking and overtaking within the marked zone.
Yellow box junction: do not enter unless the exit is clear (except when turning right and blocked only by oncoming traffic).
Traffic light sequence: red → red+amber → green → amber → red; amber means stop unless it is unsafe to do so.
Chevron (white arrows) markings separate diverging lanes; driving over them is prohibited.
A circular blue sign with a red diagonal slash = end of a previously indicated restriction.
Vehicle Safety, Inspection and Maintenance
Minimum tyre tread depth: 1.6 mm across the central 3/4 of the tread for cars and light commercial vehicles; check at 3 points around the circumference.
Tyre pressures must be checked cold; under-inflation increases rolling resistance, heat and blowout risk.
Brake test: vehicle must not pull to one side; pedal must not feel spongy; air-brake pressure loss must not exceed the manufacturer's limit.
Daily walk-around check covers tyres, lights, mirrors, wipers, fluid levels, load security and visible leaks.
ABS warning light staying on after start indicates a fault; braking distance may increase and wheel lock is possible.
Headlights must be correctly aimed; misalignment causes dazzle and is a defect on inspection.
A vehicle must not be used with a defective tyre, faulty braking system, broken lights or insecure bodywork.
Driver Hours, Rest Periods and Fitness to Drive
EU daily driving limit: 9 hours, extendable to 10 hours twice per week.
Weekly driving limit: 56 hours; two consecutive weeks combined: 90 hours maximum.
Continuous driving: maximum 4.5 hours, then a break of at least 45 minutes (may be split into 15 min + 30 min).
Daily rest: normally 11 hours, reducible to 9 hours no more than three times between weekly rests.
Weekly rest: normally 45 hours, reducible to 24 hours (compensation required).
Break/rest cannot be counted as other work; a driver must not drive when fatigued or unfit through alcohol, drugs or illness.
Tachograph records must be produced on request by enforcement officers; manual entries must be completed for any missed activity.
Load Securing, Weights and Dimensions
Load must be secured so it cannot move, shift, fall or affect vehicle stability under braking, acceleration or cornering.
Maximum authorised mass (MAM) must not be exceeded; axle loads must also stay within their individual limits.
Standard EU width limit: 2.55 m (2.60 m for refrigerated vehicles); height limit: 4.0 m; length for rigid vehicles: 12 m.
Loads projecting more than 1 m beyond the rear must be marked; overhangs must be flagged in daylight and lit at night.
Load distribution affects axle load and steering; heavy items should be placed low and over the drive axle.
Lashings must be rated for the load; number and strength must match the weight and the type of cargo.
Overloading increases stopping distance, tyre heat and risk of axle or brake failure.
Hazard Perception and Defensive Driving
Two-second rule: pick a fixed point; if you reach it before counting two seconds after the vehicle ahead, you are too close.
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance; braking distance increases with the square of speed (double speed = four times distance).
In fog, use dipped headlights and fog lights only when visibility is below about 50 m; switch fog lights off when visibility improves.
Approach junctions, bends and crossings at a speed that lets you stop within the distance you can see to be clear.
Scan mirrors every 5–8 seconds and before any change of speed or direction.
Vulnerable road users (pedestrians, cyclists, motorcyclists) have priority at crossings; anticipate unpredictable movement near schools and bus stops.
Skids: ease off the accelerator, steer in the direction of the skid, avoid harsh braking.
Incidents, Emergencies and First Aid
At an incident: protect the scene (hazard lights, warning triangle at least 30 m behind on normal roads, 100 m on motorways), then call emergency services.
Do not move an injured person unless there is immediate danger (fire, traffic, explosion).
Severe bleeding: apply direct pressure with a clean dressing; elevate the limb if no fracture is suspected.
Unconscious but breathing casualty: recovery position; check airway, breathing and circulation continuously.
Not breathing: begin CPR - 30 chest compressions to 2 rescue breaths, depth about 5–6 cm, rate 100–120 per minute.
Warning triangle is not placed on motorways in some jurisdictions - use hazard lights and get behind the barrier.
Record details at the scene: other party's details, insurance, witnesses, photographs, police reference.
Vehicle Documentation and Regulatory Compliance
Documents to carry: driving licence, vehicle registration, insurance certificate, and (for commercial vehicles) transport licence and tachograph records.
Certificate of roadworthiness (periodic technical inspection) must be valid; commercial vehicles are inspected more frequently than private cars.
Insurance must cover the vehicle and the driver; commercial goods transport requires appropriate liability cover.
Tachograph must be calibrated and sealed; tampering is an offence and invalidates records.
ADR (dangerous goods) requires driver training certificate, orange plates and placards when applicable.
Driving licence categories: C = rigid >3.5 t; C+E = rigid with trailer; D = passenger vehicles; D+E = bus with trailer.
Operator licence (transport licence) requires good repute, financial standing, and professional competence.
Additional Road Traffic Rules
Motorway: no stopping except in emergency; no reversing, U-turns or driving on the hard shoulder.
Emergency vehicles with sirens and flashing lights have priority; give way and do not follow closely.
Level crossings: stop if the barrier is down or lights flash; never zig-zag around barriers.
Parking: prohibited within 5 m of a junction, on pedestrian crossings, on pavements unless signed, and in front of driveways.
Use of hazard warning lights is for breakdowns and emergencies, not for parking.
Seat belts are mandatory for driver and passengers; children under 12 or under 1.5 m require an appropriate restraint.
Mobile phone use while driving is prohibited unless hands-free and the driver remains in control.
Vehicle Dimensions and Load Limits
Maximum authorised mass (MAM) is the maximum total weight of the vehicle plus load, set by the manufacturer.
Payload = MAM minus kerb weight; exceeding it is an offence and voids insurance in many cases.
Axle load limits protect roads and vehicle components; check the plate on the vehicle for individual axle ratings.
Height limit for general traffic is 4.0 m; drivers must know their vehicle height for bridges and tunnels.
Width limit 2.55 m (2.60 m for refrigerated); length limit for articulated combinations typically 16.5 m.
Overhanging loads must be marked; rear projections over 1 m need a warning marker and lighting at night.
Loads must not obscure lights, mirrors, registration plates or the driver's field of view.
Vehicle Inspection and Daily Checks
Pre-trip inspection: tyres (tread, pressure, damage), lights, brakes, steering, mirrors, wipers, fluids, load security.
Tyre tread minimum 1.6 mm for cars/light commercial; check across the central 3/4 of the tread width.
Brake performance: vehicle must stop in a straight line without pulling; air-brake systems must hold pressure.
Lights: headlights, indicators, brake lights, reversing lights and hazard lights must all function.
Fluids: engine oil, coolant, brake fluid, washer fluid and AdBlue (where fitted) must be at correct levels.
Any defect found must be recorded and rectified before the vehicle is used if it affects safety.
Periodic technical inspection (roadworthiness test) intervals are shorter for commercial vehicles than for private cars.
Driver Fitness and Fatigue
Fatigue impairs reaction time, judgement and attention; the only effective remedy is rest, not caffeine or fresh air.
Alcohol limit for professional drivers is generally 0.0–0.2 g/L; any alcohol impairs driving.
Medicines that cause drowsiness must not be combined with driving; check the label.
Illness, eyesight deterioration and certain medical conditions must be declared to the licensing authority.
Eyesight: driver must meet the minimum visual acuity standard and wear prescribed corrective lenses if required.
Rest breaks must be taken before fatigue sets in; microsleeps are a warning sign of serious fatigue.
Tachograph and Record Keeping
Tachograph records driving time, other work, availability and rest; records must be kept for at least 28 days.
Manual entries must be made for any activity not automatically recorded.
Tampering with or falsifying tachograph records is a criminal offence.
Driver card is personal and must not be used by another driver.
Records must be produced for inspection on request by enforcement officers.
Tachograph must be calibrated every two years and sealed by an approved workshop.
Incident Scene Management
Protect the scene first: hazard lights, warning triangle, high-visibility vest.
Warning triangle placement: at least 30 m behind the vehicle on normal roads, 100 m on motorways (where permitted).
Call emergency services with location, number of casualties and hazards.
Do not move casualties unless there is immediate danger.
Administer first aid: airway, breathing, circulation; control bleeding; keep casualty warm.
Exchange details with other parties and record witnesses and vehicle registrations.
Report the incident to the operator and insurer as required.
Compliance and Documentation
Carry: driving licence, vehicle registration, insurance, transport licence (where applicable) and tachograph records.
Insurance must be valid for the vehicle and use; commercial transport requires goods-in-transit and liability cover.
Periodic technical inspection certificate must be valid and displayed where required.
ADR certificate required for dangerous goods; orange plates and placards must be displayed.
Operator licence requires good repute, financial standing and professional competence.
Driving licence categories: C (rigid >3.5 t), C+E (with trailer), D (bus), D+E (bus with trailer).
Any change of address or medical condition must be notified to the licensing authority.
Hazard Perception and Defensive Driving Techniques
Two-second rule: maintain at least a two-second gap in good conditions; double in rain, ice or fog.
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance; braking distance grows with the square of speed.
Use dipped headlights in rain and fog; fog lights only when visibility is below about 50 m.
Scan mirrors every 5–8 seconds and before any manoeuvre.
Anticipate vulnerable road users near schools, bus stops and crossings.
Skid control: ease off accelerator, steer into the skid, avoid harsh braking.
Approach bends and junctions at a speed allowing you to stop within the visible distance.
Load Securing Principles
Load must not move, shift, fall or affect stability under braking, acceleration or cornering.
Lashings must be rated for the load; number and strength must match weight and cargo type.
Heavy items should be placed low and over the drive axle to maintain stability.
Loads must not obscure lights, mirrors, registration plates or the driver's view.
Overhanging loads over 1 m beyond the rear must be marked and lit at night.
Check load security before departure and periodically during the journey.
Overloading increases stopping distance and risk of tyre or brake failure.
Weights and Dimensions Essentials
MAM = maximum total weight of vehicle plus load; payload = MAM minus kerb weight.
Axle load limits are set by the manufacturer and must not be exceeded.
Height limit 4.0 m; width 2.55 m (2.60 m refrigerated); rigid length 12 m; articulated combination typically 16.5 m.
Overhanging loads over 1 m beyond the rear require marking and lighting at night.
Load distribution affects axle loads and steering; heavy items low and over the drive axle.
Exceeding MAM or axle limits is an offence and may void insurance.
Know your vehicle height for bridges and tunnels.
First Aid Essentials
Priority: airway, breathing, circulation; then control bleeding and keep the casualty warm.
Severe bleeding: direct pressure with a clean dressing; elevate the limb if no fracture is suspected.
Unconscious but breathing: recovery position; monitor airway and breathing continuously.
Not breathing: CPR - 30 compressions to 2 breaths, depth 5–6 cm, rate 100–120 per minute.
Do not move a casualty unless there is immediate danger.
Call emergency services with location, number of casualties and hazards.
Record details: other party's details, insurance, witnesses, photographs.
Regulatory Compliance Checklist
Carry driving licence, registration, insurance, transport licence and tachograph records.
Insurance must cover the vehicle and its use; commercial transport needs appropriate liability cover.
Periodic technical inspection must be valid; commercial vehicles are inspected more frequently.
ADR certificate, orange plates and placards required for dangerous goods.
Operator licence requires good repute, financial standing and professional competence.
Driving licence categories: C, C+E, D, D+E as applicable.
Notify the licensing authority of address changes or medical conditions.
Road Traffic Rules - Junctions and Priority
At unmarked equal junctions, yield to traffic approaching from the right.
At a STOP sign, come to a complete halt at the stop line and yield before entering.
At a GIVE WAY sign, yield and stop only if necessary.
On roundabouts, give way to traffic already on the roundabout.
Overtaking is prohibited at pedestrian crossings, level crossings, blind bends and where a solid line separates lanes.
Signal intention at least 30 m before a manoeuvre in built-up areas.
Emergency vehicles with sirens and flashing lights have priority.
Traffic Signs and Markings - Key Rules
Red triangle = warning; red circle = prohibition; blue circle = mandatory; blue rectangle = information.
Octagon = STOP; inverted triangle = GIVE WAY.
Solid white line: no crossing; broken line: crossing allowed when safe.
Zigzag markings near crossings prohibit parking and overtaking.
Yellow box junction: do not enter unless the exit is clear.
Traffic light sequence: red → red+amber → green → amber → red.
Chevron markings separate diverging lanes; driving over them is prohibited.
Vehicle Safety and Maintenance Checks
Tyre tread minimum 1.6 mm across the central 3/4 of the tread for cars and light commercial vehicles.
Check tyre pressures cold; under-inflation increases heat and blowout risk.
Brake test: no pulling to one side, no spongy pedal; air-brake pressure loss within manufacturer's limit.
Daily walk-around: tyres, lights, mirrors, wipers, fluids, load security, leaks.
ABS warning light staying on indicates a fault; braking distance may increase.
Headlights must be correctly aimed to avoid dazzle.
Defective tyres, brakes, lights or insecure bodywork make the vehicle unfit for use.
Driver Hours and Rest - Limits
Daily driving limit 9 hours, extendable to 10 hours twice per week.
Weekly driving limit 56 hours; two consecutive weeks combined 90 hours maximum.
Continuous driving maximum 4.5 hours, then a break of at least 45 minutes (15 + 30 split allowed).
Daily rest normally 11 hours, reducible to 9 hours no more than three times between weekly rests.
Weekly rest normally 45 hours, reducible to 24 hours with compensation.
Breaks and rest cannot be counted as other work.
Tachograph records must be produced on request; manual entries for missed activity.
Hazard Perception - Speed and Distance
Two-second rule in good conditions; double to four seconds in rain, ice, fog or darkness.
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance; braking distance grows with the square of speed.
Approach bends and junctions at a speed allowing you to stop within the visible distance.
Use dipped headlights in rain and fog; fog lights only when visibility is below about 50 m.
Scan mirrors every 5–8 seconds and before any manoeuvre.
Anticipate vulnerable road users near schools, bus stops and crossings.
Skid control: ease off accelerator, steer into the skid, avoid harsh braking.
Incident and Emergency Response
Protect the scene first: hazard lights, warning triangle, high-visibility vest.
Warning triangle at least 30 m behind on normal roads, 100 m on motorways where permitted.
Call emergency services with location, number of casualties and hazards.
Do not move casualties unless there is immediate danger.
First aid: airway, breathing, circulation; control bleeding; keep casualty warm.
Exchange details with other parties and record witnesses and registrations.
Report the incident to the operator and insurer as required.
Documentation and Licensing
Carry driving licence, vehicle registration, insurance, transport licence and tachograph records.
Insurance must be valid for the vehicle and its use; commercial transport needs liability cover.
Periodic technical inspection certificate must be valid and displayed where required.
ADR certificate required for dangerous goods; orange plates and placards must be displayed.
Operator licence requires good repute, financial standing and professional competence.
Driving licence categories: C, C+E, D, D+E as applicable.
Notify the licensing authority of address changes or medical conditions.
Load Securing and Weight Distribution
Load must not move, shift, fall or affect stability under braking, acceleration or cornering.
Lashings must be rated for the load; number and strength must match weight and cargo type.
Heavy items low and over the drive axle to maintain stability.
Loads must not obscure lights, mirrors, registration plates or the driver's view.
Overhanging loads over 1 m beyond the rear require marking and lighting at night.
Check load security before departure and periodically during the journey.
Overloading increases stopping distance and risk of tyre or brake failure.
Weights and Dimensions - Key Figures
MAM = maximum total weight of vehicle plus load; payload = MAM minus kerb weight.
Axle load limits set by the manufacturer must not be exceeded.
Height limit 4.0 m; width 2.55 m (2.60 m refrigerated); rigid length 12 m; articulated combination typically 16.5 m.
Overhanging loads over 1 m beyond the rear require marking and lighting at night.
Load distribution affects axle loads and steering.
Exceeding MAM or axle limits is an offence and may void insurance.
Know your vehicle height for bridges and tunnels.
First Aid - CPR and Recovery
Priority: airway, breathing, circulation; then control bleeding and keep the casualty warm.
Severe bleeding: direct pressure with a clean dressing; elevate the limb if no fracture is suspected.
Unconscious but breathing: recovery position; monitor airway and breathing continuously.
Not breathing: CPR - 30 compressions to 2 breaths, depth 5–6 cm, rate 100–120 per minute.
Do not move a casualty unless there is immediate danger.
Call emergency services with location, number of casualties and hazards.
Record details: other party's details, insurance, witnesses, photographs.
Regulatory Compliance - Operator Duties
Carry driving licence, registration, insurance, transport licence and tachograph records.
Insurance must cover the vehicle and its use; commercial transport needs liability cover.
Periodic technical inspection must be valid; commercial vehicles are inspected more frequently.
ADR certificate, orange plates and placards required for dangerous goods.
Operator licence requires good repute, financial standing and professional competence.
Driving licence categories: C, C+E, D, D+E as applicable.
Notify the licensing authority of address changes or medical conditions.
Road Traffic Rules - Speed and Overtaking
Speed limits: motorways 120 km/h, national roads 100 km/h, regional roads 80 km/h, built-up areas 50 km/h (posted signs override).
Minimum following distance at least 2 seconds; double in rain, ice, fog or darkness.
Overtake on the left; pass on the right only when the vehicle ahead is turning left.
Overtaking prohibited at pedestrian crossings, level crossings, blind bends and where a solid line separates lanes.
Signal intention at least 30 m before a manoeuvre in built-up areas.
Give way to traffic already on a roundabout; yield to traffic from the right at unmarked equal junctions.
Emergency vehicles with sirens and flashing lights have priority.
Traffic Signs - Warning and Prohibition
Red triangle = warning; red circle = prohibition; blue circle = mandatory; blue rectangle = information.
Octagon = STOP; inverted triangle = GIVE WAY.
Solid white line: no crossing; broken line: crossing allowed when safe.
Zigzag markings near crossings prohibit parking and overtaking.
Yellow box junction: do not enter unless the exit is clear.
Traffic light sequence: red → red+amber → green → amber → red.
Chevron markings separate diverging lanes; driving over them is prohibited.
Vehicle Safety - Tyres and Brakes
Tyre tread minimum 1.6 mm across the central 3/4 of the tread for cars and light commercial vehicles.
Check tyre pressures cold; under-inflation increases heat and blowout risk.
Brake test: no pulling to one side, no spongy pedal; air-brake pressure loss within manufacturer's limit.
Daily walk-around: tyres, lights, mirrors, wipers, fluids, load security, leaks.
ABS warning light staying on indicates a fault; braking distance may increase.
Headlights must be correctly aimed to avoid dazzle.
Defective tyres, brakes, lights or insecure bodywork make the vehicle unfit for use.
Driver Hours - Daily and Weekly Limits
Daily driving limit 9 hours, extendable to 10 hours twice per week.
Weekly driving limit 56 hours; two consecutive weeks combined 90 hours maximum.
Continuous driving maximum 4.5 hours, then a break of at least 45 minutes (15 + 30 split allowed).
Daily rest normally 11 hours, reducible to 9 hours no more than three times between weekly rests.
Weekly rest normally 45 hours, reducible to 24 hours with compensation.
Breaks and rest cannot be counted as other work.
Tachograph records must be produced on request; manual entries for missed activity.
Hazard Perception - Visibility and Skids
Two-second rule in good conditions; double to four seconds in rain, ice, fog or darkness.
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance; braking distance grows with the square of speed.
Approach bends and junctions at a speed allowing you to stop within the visible distance.
Use dipped headlights in rain and fog; fog lights only when visibility is below about 50 m.
Scan mirrors every 5–8 seconds and before any manoeuvre.
Anticipate vulnerable road users near schools, bus stops and crossings.
Skid control: ease off accelerator, steer into the skid, avoid harsh braking.
Incidents - Scene Protection
Protect the scene first: hazard lights, warning triangle, high-visibility vest.
Warning triangle at least 30 m behind on normal roads, 100 m on motorways where permitted.
Call emergency services with location, number of casualties and hazards.
Do not move casualties unless there is immediate danger.
First aid: airway, breathing, circulation; control bleeding; keep casualty warm.
Exchange details with other parties and record witnesses and registrations.
Report the incident to the operator and insurer as required.
Documentation - Licences and Insurance
Carry driving licence, vehicle registration, insurance, transport licence and tachograph records.
Insurance must be valid for the vehicle and its use; commercial transport needs liability cover.
Periodic technical inspection certificate must be valid and displayed where required.
ADR certificate required for dangerous goods; orange plates and placards must be displayed.
Operator licence requires good repute, financial standing and professional competence.
Driving licence categories: C, C+E, D, D+E as applicable.
Notify the licensing authority of address changes or medical conditions.
Load Securing - Lashings and Marking
Load must not move, shift, fall or affect stability under braking, acceleration or cornering.
Lashings must be rated for the load; number and strength must match weight and cargo type.
Heavy items low and over the drive axle to maintain stability.
Loads must not obscure lights, mirrors, registration plates or the driver's view.
Overhanging loads over 1 m beyond the rear require marking and lighting at night.
Check load security before departure and periodically during the journey.
Overloading increases stopping distance and risk of tyre or brake failure.
Weights - Axle Loads and Payload
MAM = maximum total weight of vehicle plus load; payload = MAM minus kerb weight.
Axle load limits set by the manufacturer must not be exceeded.
Height limit 4.0 m; width 2.55 m (2.60 m refrigerated); rigid length 12 m; articulated combination typically 16.5 m.
Overhanging loads over 1 m beyond the rear require marking and lighting at night.
Load distribution affects axle loads and steering.
Exceeding MAM or axle limits is an offence and may void insurance.
Know your vehicle height for bridges and tunnels.