Kankor 14-Pass key terms

The process by which green plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make sugar and release oxygen. Chlorophyll in leaves captures the light energy needed for this reaction.

The green pigment found in plant leaves and other photosynthetic organisms. It absorbs light energy, mainly red and blue wavelengths, which drives the making of food from water and carbon dioxide.

The set of chemical reactions in living cells that break down glucose to release usable energy. It uses oxygen in most organisms and produces carbon dioxide and water as waste products.

Small structures inside cells often called the powerhouse of the cell. They carry out respiration, converting food energy into a form the cell can use for its work.

The movement of water molecules through a partly permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration. It continues until concentrations balance on both sides.

The spreading of particles from an area where they are crowded to an area where they are less concentrated. It happens because particles move randomly and needs no added energy.

The thin outer covering of a cell that controls what enters and leaves. It is partly permeable, letting some substances pass while blocking others.

A rule stating that the acceleration of an object depends on the net force acting on it and on its mass. Force equals mass times acceleration, so heavier objects need more force to speed up equally.

The rate at which velocity changes over time, whether by speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction. It is measured in metres per second squared and is caused by a net force.

The speed of an object in a stated direction. Because it includes direction, two objects moving at the same speed but opposite ways have different velocities.

A push or pull that can change an object's motion, shape, or direction. It is measured in newtons and is always produced by an interaction between two objects.

The resisting force that acts when two surfaces slide or try to slide against each other. It opposes motion, produces heat, and can be reduced by smoothing or lubricating surfaces.

A relationship stating that current through a conductor equals voltage divided by resistance. It shows that increasing voltage raises current, while increasing resistance lowers it.

The flow of electric charge through a conductor such as a wire. It is measured in amperes and requires a complete circuit and a source of voltage to keep flowing.

The opposition a material offers to the flow of electric current. It is measured in ohms and depends on the material, its length, its thickness, and its temperature.

The amount of a substance that contains about 6.02 times ten to the twenty-third particles, such as atoms or molecules. This number is called Avogadro's number.

The count of particles in one mole of any substance, approximately 6.02 times ten to the twenty-third. It links the mass of a sample to the number of atoms or molecules it contains.

The mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole. It is found by adding the atomic masses of all atoms in the chemical formula.

A substance that releases hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, tastes sour, and turns blue litmus paper red. It reacts with bases to form salt and water.

A substance that accepts hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions in water, feels slippery, and turns red litmus paper blue. It neutralises acids to produce salt and water.

A numbered scale from zero to fourteen that measures how acidic or basic a solution is. Values below seven are acidic, seven is neutral, and above seven is basic.

A chart that arranges chemical elements by increasing atomic number in rows and columns. Elements in the same column share similar chemical properties because of their outer electron arrangement.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which identifies the element. In a neutral atom it equals the number of electrons.

An equation in which the highest power of the unknown is two, usually written as a x squared plus b x plus c equals zero. It can have two, one, or no real solutions.

The part of the quadratic formula under the square root, b squared minus four a c. Its sign tells whether a quadratic equation has two, one, or no real solutions.

Rewriting an expression as a product of simpler expressions that multiply back to the original. It is a common method for solving equations and simplifying fractions.

A rule for right-angled triangles stating that the square of the longest side equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides. It is used to find unknown lengths.

A triangle containing one angle of exactly ninety degrees. The side opposite this angle is the longest and is called the hypotenuse.

A ratio comparing the lengths of two sides of a right triangle, such as sine, cosine, or tangent. These ratios relate an angle to side lengths and help solve triangles.

A number between zero and one expressing how likely an event is. It equals the number of favourable outcomes divided by the total number of equally likely outcomes.

An arrangement of items in which the order matters. The number of permutations of n items taken r at a time is calculated using factorials.

A selection of items in which the order does not matter. Choosing three students from a class is a combination, while arranging them in a line is a permutation.

A rule that assigns exactly one output value to each allowed input value. Each input has only one result, though different inputs may share the same output.

The domain is the set of all allowed input values of a function, and the range is the set of all resulting output values. Together they describe where a function is defined.

The system of leadership in early Islamic history in which a caliph governed the Muslim community as a political and religious successor to the Prophet. Several major caliphates rose and fell over centuries.

The migration of the Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. This event marks the start of the Islamic calendar.

The five core duties that shape a Muslim's worship and daily life: declaring faith, prayer, charity, fasting in Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca. They are central to Islamic practice.

The obligatory yearly charity in Islam, paid on wealth above a certain minimum. It is one of the five pillars and is used to support the poor and needy.

A network of trade routes linking China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Goods, ideas, and religions travelled along it, shaping the history of regions including Afghanistan.

An ancient region in northern Afghanistan and Central Asia, known in history for its rich cities and mixture of cultures. It lay on major trade routes and was influenced by Greek, Persian, and Buddhist traditions.

The Afghan empire founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani in the eighteenth century, often considered the beginning of modern Afghanistan. It united many tribes and stretched across a wide region.

The traditional code of conduct followed by many Pashtuns, emphasising hospitality, honour, courage, and seeking refuge for guests. It guides social behaviour in many rural communities.

The theory that Earth's outer shell is broken into large plates that slowly move over the mantle. Their collisions and separations cause earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.

A sudden shaking of the ground caused by the release of built-up pressure along faults in Earth's crust. Its strength is measured by magnitude scales such as Richter.

A seasonal wind that reverses direction between summer and winter and brings heavy rainfall to parts of South Asia. It strongly affects farming and water supply in the region.

The average pattern of weather in a place over many years, including temperature and rainfall. It differs from weather, which describes short-term daily conditions.

The principle of dividing government authority among separate branches so no single group holds all power. It usually separates the legislative, executive, and judicial functions.

The principle that everyone, including government officials, is subject to the same publicly known laws. It protects citizens from arbitrary decisions and supports fair treatment.

A figure of speech comparing two things using words such as like or as. An example in Dari or Pashto poetry is comparing a beloved to a flower.

A figure of speech that describes one thing as if it were another, without using like or as. It creates vivid meaning by transferring qualities from one image to another.

A short lyric poem of rhyming couplets with a repeated refrain, widely used in Dari and Pashto literature. It usually expresses love, longing, or spiritual themes.

Two lines of poetry that usually rhyme and form a complete thought. Couplets are the building blocks of many forms in Persian, Dari, and Pashto poetry.

The regular pattern of stressed and unstressed or long and short syllables in a line of poetry. In Dari and Pashto verse, metre gives poems their rhythm.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be understood from its individual words alone. Every language has idioms that carry cultural meaning, such as phrases about the heart or eyes.

A short, well-known saying that expresses a common truth or piece of advice. Proverbs are widely used in Dari and Pashto speech and reflect local values.