Afghan Air Force University Kankor key terms

The process by which green plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make glucose and release oxygen. It happens mainly in the chloroplasts of leaf cells and supplies the energy stored in food.

A green organelle found in plant cells that contains chlorophyll and carries out photosynthesis. It captures light energy and converts it into chemical energy stored in sugars.

The set of chemical reactions in cells that release energy from glucose, usually using oxygen and producing carbon dioxide and water. This energy powers cell activities and is stored briefly in ATP.

An organelle in eukaryotic cells where most cellular respiration takes place. It produces ATP, the cell's main energy currency, and is often called the powerhouse of the cell.

The thin, flexible boundary around a cell that controls what enters and leaves. It is made of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and is selectively permeable.

The movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration. It does not require added energy.

The net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, driven by random molecular motion. It continues until concentrations are balanced.

Deoxyribonucleic acid, the molecule that carries genetic instructions in living cells. It has a double-helix structure made of nucleotides, and its sequence codes for proteins.

A section of DNA that contains the instructions for making a particular protein or trait. Genes are passed from parents to offspring and are the basic units of heredity.

A thread-like structure of tightly coiled DNA and protein found in the nucleus. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes in each body cell, arranged in 23 pairs.

The rule that the net force on an object equals its mass times its acceleration (F = ma). A larger force causes greater acceleration, while a larger mass resists acceleration.

The rate at which velocity changes with time, including changes in speed or direction. It is a vector quantity measured in metres per second squared (m/s²).

The speed of an object in a stated direction. Because it includes direction, it is a vector quantity, unlike speed, which is scalar.

The straight-line distance and direction from a starting point to an ending point. It is a vector quantity and differs from distance travelled, which ignores direction.

The principle that for every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force. The two forces act on different objects, so they do not cancel each other.

A push or pull that can change an object's motion, shape, or direction. It is measured in newtons and is a vector quantity with both size and direction.

The relationship stating that current through a conductor equals voltage divided by resistance (I = V/R). It applies to many metallic conductors at constant temperature.

The rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes. It flows from higher potential to lower potential in a closed circuit.

The opposition a material offers to the flow of electric current, measured in ohms. It depends on the material, its length, its cross-sectional area, and temperature.

The amount of a substance containing 6.02 × 10²³ particles, such as atoms or molecules. It links the mass of a sample to the number of particles it contains.

The mass of one mole of a substance, expressed in grams per mole. It is found by adding the atomic masses of all atoms in the chemical formula.

The number of particles in one mole of a substance, approximately 6.02 × 10²³. It allows chemists to count atoms and molecules by weighing them.

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. It typically forms between non-metal atoms and produces molecules.

A chemical bond formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions, usually a metal cation and a non-metal anion. Electrons are transferred rather than shared.

An electron in the outermost shell of an atom that can take part in chemical bonding. The number of valence electrons largely determines an element's chemical behaviour.

An acid donates hydrogen ions or accepts electrons, while a base accepts hydrogen ions. Their reaction neutralises each other, producing salt and usually water.

A scale from 0 to 14 measuring how acidic or basic a solution is. Values below 7 are acidic, 7 is neutral, and values above 7 are basic.

An equation of the form ax² + bx + c = 0, where a is not zero. Its solutions can be found by factoring, completing the square, or the quadratic formula.

The expression b² − 4ac in the quadratic formula. Its sign shows whether a quadratic equation has two real roots, one repeated real root, or no real roots.

A rule that assigns exactly one output value to each input value in its domain. It can be shown as an equation, a table, or a graph.

A measure of how a function changes as its input changes, equal to the slope of the tangent line at a point. It is a central idea in calculus.

A mathematical quantity that accumulates values of a function, often interpreted as the area under a curve. Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.

A ratio of two sides of a right triangle, such as sine, cosine, or tangent. These ratios relate an angle of the triangle to the lengths of its sides.

The rule that in a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides (a² + b² = c²).

The grammar rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person. A singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb.

The form of a verb that shows when an action happens, such as past, present, or future. Tense also shows whether an action is simple, continuous, or completed.

Voice shows whether the subject performs or receives the action. In active voice the subject acts; in passive voice the subject is acted upon, often using 'be' plus a past participle.

A word that has the same or nearly the same meaning as another word in the same language, such as 'big' and 'large'. Synonyms help vary expression in writing.

A word that has the opposite meaning of another word, such as 'hot' and 'cold'. Antonyms are often tested in vocabulary and reading questions.

The system of leadership in early Islamic history in which a caliph governed the Muslim community as a political and religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad.

The migration of the Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. It marks the start of the Islamic calendar.

The five core acts of worship in Islam: declaration of faith, prayer, charity, fasting in Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca. They shape the daily life of Muslims.

A network of trade routes linking China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Goods, ideas, and religions spread along these routes for many centuries.

A seasonal wind pattern that reverses direction between summer and winter, bringing heavy rainfall to parts of South and Southeast Asia. It strongly affects farming and water supply.

Afghanistan is a landlocked, mountainous country in Central Asia, crossed by the Hindu Kush range. Its rivers, valleys, and dry climate shape settlement and agriculture.

The body of poetry and prose written in Dari (Persian) and Pashto, including classical poets and folk oral traditions. Both languages are official in Afghanistan.