OEA Admission Exam key terms

A conclusion drawn from stated evidence rather than stated outright. On reading tests, an inference must follow necessarily from the passage, not merely seem plausible or match general knowledge.

The central point a passage is written to convey, which the rest of the text supports. It is broader than any single detail and is usually stated or implied in the opening or closing sentences.

The attitude an author expresses toward the subject, such as critical, neutral, enthusiastic, or skeptical. Tone is signalled by word choice and must be judged from the text, not from the reader's own opinion.

The emotional or cultural association a word carries beyond its literal meaning, as when 'thrifty' sounds approving and 'stingy' sounds critical. Recognizing connotation helps identify tone and bias in a passage.

The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, separate from any emotional shading it may carry. Distinguishing denotation from connotation prevents misreading a passage's attitude toward its subject.

An unstated belief the author treats as true in order for an argument to hold. If the assumption is false, the conclusion loses support; identifying assumptions is central to evaluating arguments.

A stated reason or piece of evidence offered in support of a conclusion. Premises are what an argument gives you; the conclusion is what the argument wants you to accept because of them.

The claim an argument is trying to establish, supported by its premises. It is often flagged by words such as 'therefore', 'thus', or 'so', and is the statement the rest of the argument serves.

An argument whose conclusion must be true whenever its premises are true, because of the argument's logical form alone. Validity concerns structure, not whether the premises are actually true in the world.

A valid argument whose premises are all actually true. Soundness requires both correct logical form and factual premises, so a sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.

A deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion, typically in the form 'All A are B; all B are C; therefore all A are C'. Testing syllogisms with diagrams or counterexamples reveals whether they are valid.

A case in which an argument's premises are true but its conclusion is false, proving the argument invalid. For general claims, a single counterexample is enough to refute a universal statement.

A statistical relationship in which two variables tend to change together. Correlation alone does not establish that one variable causes the other, since a third factor or coincidence may explain the pattern.

A relationship in which a change in one variable actually produces a change in another. Establishing causation requires more than observed association, typically controlled comparison or a plausible mechanism.

An unmeasured factor that influences both the supposed cause and the observed effect, creating a misleading association. Failing to control for confounders is a common flaw in causal claims based on data.

The arithmetic average, found by adding all values and dividing by the number of values. The mean is sensitive to extreme values, so it can misrepresent a skewed data set.

The middle value when data are arranged in order, or the average of the two middle values if the count is even. Unlike the mean, the median is resistant to outliers.

A data point that lies far from the rest of the observations. Outliers can strongly shift the mean and the range while leaving the median and interquartile range largely unchanged.

The difference between a new value and an original value, divided by the original value and expressed as a percent. It is always computed relative to the starting value, not the ending value.

The unit used to describe an absolute difference between two percentages, as when a rate rises from 20% to 25%, a change of 5 percentage points but a 25% relative increase.

A comparison of two quantities showing how many times one contains the other, often written as a fraction or with a colon. Ratios scale together, so both parts must be multiplied by the same factor.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal, used to solve for an unknown quantity in scaling problems. Setting up the units consistently is essential to avoid inverted results.

A data set whose values cluster toward one end with a long tail toward the other. In a right-skewed distribution the mean is typically greater than the median.

A distortion that occurs when the group studied is not representative of the population it is meant to describe. Conclusions drawn from a biased sample may not generalize to the wider group.

A broad claim extended from specific observations to a larger group. It is only as strong as the sample's size and representativeness, so weak samples support only weak generalizations.

Reasoning that moves from general principles to a specific conclusion guaranteed by them. If the premises are true and the form is valid, the deductive conclusion must also be true.

Reasoning that moves from specific observations to a broader probable conclusion. Inductive conclusions are never certain, only more or less well supported by the evidence gathered.

A common pattern of flawed reasoning that makes an argument unreliable, such as attacking a person instead of their claim. Naming the pattern helps explain precisely why the reasoning fails.

A fallacy in which someone distorts or exaggerates another's position and then refutes the distorted version. The real argument is never actually addressed, so the refutation proves nothing.

A fallacy in which the conclusion is simply restated among the premises, so the argument assumes what it sets out to prove. No independent evidence is ever supplied.

Presenting items in a series or comparison in the same grammatical form, such as all nouns or all infinitives. Consistent structure makes writing clearer and is frequently tested in usage questions.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number, singular with singular and plural with plural. Interrupting phrases between subject and verb often hide the true subject from the writer.

A descriptive phrase that does not clearly attach to the word it is meant to describe, often because the intended subject is missing. The result is a sentence that says something unintended or illogical.

A word or phrase that describes or limits another element in a sentence. For clarity, a modifier should sit close to the word it modifies, especially in the case of 'only' and similar limiters.

A connective such as 'however', 'therefore', or 'meanwhile' that signals the logical relation between sentences or paragraphs. Choosing the wrong transition can reverse or confuse the intended meaning.

The quality of writing in which ideas connect logically and flow smoothly from one to the next. Coherence depends on clear organization and appropriate transitions, not merely on correct grammar.

Expressing an idea in the fewest words needed without losing meaning. Concise writing removes redundancy and empty phrases, a quality often rewarded in sentence-improvement questions.

A slant or partiality in how information is selected or presented, which can distort a reader's understanding. In data and text alike, spotting bias means asking what was emphasized and what was left out.

The quality of seeming reasonable or believable given available evidence, without proof. Judging plausibility is a practical test used when full verification is impossible, as in many analytical problems.