AP US Government and Politics cheat sheet

The Constitution's structure reflects compromise: the Great (Connecticut) Compromise created a bicameral Congress with population-based House seats and equal state representation in the Senate.

The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved persons as three-fifths of a person for apportionment and direct taxation; the slave trade could not be banned before 1808.

Federalist No. 10 (Madison) argues a large republic controls faction better than a small one because competing interests multiply and majority coalitions are harder to form.

Federalist No. 51 (Madison) argues ambition must counteract ambition and that separating powers with checks and balances protects liberty.

Brutus No. 1 (Anti-Federalist) warns that a large central government will be distant from the people and that the necessary-and-proper clause plus supremacy clause threaten state power.

The Articles of Confederation lacked power to tax, regulate interstate commerce, or raise an army directly; Shays' Rebellion exposed these weaknesses.

Constitutional amendment requires two-thirds of each chamber of Congress to propose and three-fourths of state legislatures (or conventions) to ratify.

The Connecticut and Virginia Plans differed on representation; the New Jersey Plan preserved equal state voting in a unicameral legislature.

Federalism types: dual (layer cake, separate spheres), cooperative (marble cake, shared functions), and fiscal federalism through grants-in-aid.

Congressional incumbency advantage stems from casework, franking, pork-barrel spending, and higher name recognition; House reelection rates typically exceed 90 percent.

A filibuster in the Senate requires 60 votes to invoke cloture; the nuclear option allows a simple-majority rule change on certain nominations.

The House Rules Committee sets terms of floor debate; the Senate lacks a comparable structured rules process, relying on unanimous consent.

Presidential vetoes can be overridden by two-thirds of both chambers; pocket vetoes occur only when Congress adjourns within 10 days of presentment.

Executive orders carry force of law but can be overturned by statute, judicial review, or a subsequent executive order; they do not require congressional approval.

Judicial review was established in Marbury v. Madison (1803); stare decisis means courts generally follow precedent.

Senatorial courtesy and the blue-slip tradition give home-state senators influence over district court nominations; Supreme Court nominees face full Senate confirmation.

The War Powers Resolution (1973) requires the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of armed conflict and withdraw forces within 60 days absent authorization.

Bureaucratic oversight tools include congressional hearings, GAO audits, the appropriations power, and the Congressional Review Act.

Selective incorporation applies most Bill of Rights protections to states through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause; the Second Amendment was incorporated in McDonald v. Chicago (2010).

Establishment Clause tests: Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) requires secular purpose, primary effect neither advancing nor inhibiting religion, and no excessive entanglement; Kennedy v. Bremerton (2022) shifted toward historical practice.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969) protects student symbolic speech unless it causes substantial disruption; Schenck v. United States (1919) created the clear-and-present-danger test.

Miranda v. Arizona (1966) requires warnings before custodial interrogation; Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) requires counsel for felony defendants.

Mapp v. Ohio (1961) applied the exclusionary rule to states; the rule bars evidence obtained through unconstitutional searches.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) separate-but-equal doctrine in public education.

Strict scrutiny applies to suspect classifications (race, national origin, religion) and fundamental rights; intermediate scrutiny applies to sex-based classifications under Craig v. Boren.

Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title II bars discrimination in public accommodations; Title VII bars employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Voting protections: Fifteenth Amendment (race), Nineteenth (sex), Twenty-Fourth (poll tax abolition), Twenty-Sixth (age 18).

Political socialization agents ranked roughly by influence: family first, then school, peers, media, and religion; family transmission is strongest for party identification.

Libertarians favor limited government in both economic and social spheres; populists/conservatives favor government action on social issues but less economic regulation.

Public opinion polling accuracy depends on random sampling, adequate sample size (about 1,000 yields roughly ±3 percent margin at 95 percent confidence), and low nonresponse bias.

Exit polls and push polls differ: exit polls sample voters after voting, push polls present biased information disguised as a survey.

Ideological consistency in the U.S. electorate is low; many citizens hold cross-cutting views, producing 'ideological polarization' among elites but not always the mass public.

Key economic indicators used in politics: unemployment rate, inflation (CPI), GDP growth; consumer confidence and approval ratings track with economic conditions.

Realignment versus dealignment: realignment is durable party coalition shift (e.g., 1932 New Deal coalition); dealignment is weakening party attachment.

Generational and cohort effects shape attitudes; period effects (e.g., wars, recessions) can shift opinion across all ages simultaneously.

Voter turnout in U.S. presidential elections typically ranges from about 55 to 65 percent of the voting-age population; midterms run roughly 40 percent.

Structural turnout factors: registration requirements, Election Day timing (Tuesday), and felony disenfranchisement laws; the National Voter Registration Act (1993) expanded registration opportunities.

Rational choice models predict voting when benefits exceed costs; paradox of voting notes that individual votes rarely decide outcomes.

Linkage institutions include political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media; each connects citizens to government.

Interest group strategies: lobbying, litigation, electioneering, grassroots mobilization, and campaign contributions through PACs and super PACs (Citizens United, 2010).

Party functions: recruiting candidates, mobilizing voters, articulating policy positions, and organizing government (parties in Congress).

The Electoral College: each state gets electors equal to House seats plus two senators; 270 of 538 needed to win; winner-take-all in 48 states.

Media roles: agenda setting (what issues matter), framing (how issues are presented), and horse-race coverage emphasizing strategy over policy.