AP US Government and Politics key terms

A system in which power is divided between a national government and state governments, each with its own authority that the other cannot simply erase, and both governing citizens directly.

Powers explicitly listed and granted to Congress in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, such as declaring war, coining money, and regulating interstate commerce.

Powers Congress exercises that are not spelled out in the Constitution but are reasonably inferred as necessary to carry out its expressed powers, grounded in the necessary and proper clause.

The final clause of Article I, Section 8, allowing Congress to make laws necessary and proper for executing its listed powers; its flexibility has let federal authority expand over time.

Powers not delegated to the national government and not barred to the states, retained by the states or the people under the Tenth Amendment, including policing and running elections.

The constitutional provision stating that powers not given to the federal government, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or to the people, a textual anchor for state authority.

The grant in Article I, Section 8 letting Congress regulate trade among states and with foreign nations; broad judicial readings made it a major source of federal regulatory power.

Another name for the elastic clause, granting Congress implied authority to pass laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers; it is the constitutional basis for implied powers.

Article IV requirement that states honor each other's public acts, records, and court rulings, such as marriages and judgments, promoting cooperation across state lines.

Article IV provision barring states from discriminating against out-of-state residents in fundamental rights like pursuing work or accessing courts, though some distinctions remain allowed.

The transfer of policy authority and funding from the federal government to states, often through block grants, reflecting a preference for more localized decision-making.

Federal money given to states for a narrowly defined purpose with detailed conditions attached, giving Washington substantial influence over state priorities.

Federal funds given to states for a broad policy area with few strings attached, giving recipients wide discretion over how the money is spent.

A federal requirement imposed on states without accompanying funding to cover its costs, which states often criticize as an intrusion on their budgets and priorities.

The constitutional design dividing governing authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches so that no single institution holds all power.

The overlapping powers that let each branch limit the others, such as the Senate confirming appointments, Congress overriding vetoes, and courts striking down laws.

The president's power to reject a bill passed by Congress; Congress can override it with a two-thirds vote in each chamber.

A bill dying because the president neither signs nor returns it while Congress adjourns within ten days, a tactic unavailable when Congress stays in session.

A Senate tactic in which extended debate blocks action on a bill or nomination unless sixty senators vote to end it through cloture.

A Senate procedure requiring sixty votes to end debate on a measure, the main tool for overcoming a filibuster.

Drawing legislative district boundaries to favor a party or group, often by packing opponents into few districts or splitting their support across many.

The distribution of seats in the House of Representatives among the states according to population counts from the census, adjusted every ten years.

A directive from the president to federal agencies telling them how to carry out or interpret the law, which has the force of law but can be reversed by later presidents.

The president's claimed right to withhold internal communications from Congress or the courts to protect confidential advice, a claim courts have limited rather than endorsed absolutely.

The authority of courts to examine laws and actions of other branches and invalidate those that conflict with the Constitution, established in Marbury v. Madison.

The practice of courts following precedents set by earlier rulings in similar cases, promoting stability and predictability in the law.

A view that judges may and should decide cases broadly, overturning precedent or policy when they see constitutional problems, rather than deferring to other branches.

A view that judges should decide narrowly, defer to elected officials where possible, and overturn precedent or laws only when clearly required.

The network of federal agencies and departments that implement laws, issue regulations, and deliver services, organized hierarchically and staffed largely by career civil servants.

A stable relationship among a congressional committee, an executive agency, and an interest group that jointly shapes policy in a given area, often resisting outside change.

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied most protections in the Bill of Rights to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause.

Fourteenth Amendment language barring states from depriving people of life, liberty, or property without fair legal procedures; it is the vehicle for applying most Bill of Rights guarantees to states.

Fourteenth Amendment provision requiring states to treat people equally under the law, the basis for challenging racial segregation and other discriminatory classifications.

First Amendment ban on Congress making laws respecting an establishment of religion, interpreted to limit government endorsement or support of religious activity.

First Amendment protection of the right to practice one's religion, though courts allow some neutral, generally applicable laws that incidentally burden religious practice.

A standard from early First Amendment cases allowing punishment of speech that creates a serious, imminent threat of harm, later narrowed by stricter modern tests.

Nonverbal expression such as flag burning or wearing armbands, which courts generally protect when it conveys a message, though regulation is allowed in some settings.

Policies that consider race or other group membership to expand opportunities for historically excluded groups, which courts have increasingly limited in education and hiring.

The lifelong process through which people acquire political beliefs and values, shaped by family, schools, peers, media, and major events.

A person's belief that their participation can influence government; high efficacy is linked to voting and other forms of engagement.

The distribution of citizens' views on political issues and figures, typically measured through surveys of samples meant to represent the larger population.

The margin by which survey results may differ from the true population because only a subset was questioned, usually shrinking as sample size grows.

An organized group that seeks to win elections, control government, and shape policy by recruiting candidates and mobilizing supporters around a shared platform.

A person's enduring psychological attachment to a political party, which strongly predicts voting behavior and often forms early in life.

An organized collection of people or organizations that tries to influence policy without running candidates, using lobbying, litigation, and grassroots pressure.

A group that raises and spends money to influence elections, subject to contribution limits and disclosure rules; super PACs may spend unlimited sums independently of candidates.

The share of eligible voters who actually cast a ballot, affected by registration rules, election laws, competitiveness, and individual factors like efficacy and education.

The body of electors chosen by states that formally selects the president, with each state's vote count based on its congressional representation.

The role of news organizations in deciding which people, issues, and events reach public attention, shaping what citizens consider important.