TASC Japanese key terms

The central point an author wants readers to understand. It is broader than any single detail and is often stated in a topic sentence or must be inferred from the whole passage.

A fact, example, or reason that explains or proves the main idea. Details answer questions like who, what, when, and why, and they give evidence for conclusions.

A reasonable conclusion drawn from clues in a text plus what the reader already knows. The answer is not stated directly, so readers must combine evidence with logic.

Information in nearby words or sentences that helps a reader figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. Clues may be definitions, examples, contrasts, or restatements.

A sentence, usually near the start of a paragraph, that names the paragraph's main point. The remaining sentences develop or support it with details and examples.

The reason a writer creates a text, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain. Recognizing the purpose helps readers judge how to interpret the information presented.

The writer's attitude toward the subject, revealed through word choice and sentence style. Tone might be serious, humorous, critical, or neutral, and it shapes how readers feel.

A reading and writing pattern that examines how two or more things are alike and how they differ. Signal words include similarly, however, both, and unlike.

The way an author organizes information, such as cause and effect, sequence, problem and solution, or comparison. Structure guides readers to the important relationships among ideas.

A fact can be proven true with evidence, while an opinion expresses a belief, feeling, or judgment. Skilled readers separate verifiable statements from claims that need support.

Specific information, such as facts, examples, statistics, or quotations, used to support a claim. Strong evidence is relevant, accurate, and sufficient for the point being made.

Determining what a word means from how it is used in a particular sentence or passage, rather than from a dictionary alone. Many words carry different shades of meaning in different settings.

A sentence that states the central claim of an essay and previews what the writing will prove. It usually appears near the end of the introduction and controls the whole piece.

The quality of a paragraph in which every sentence relates to one controlling idea. Sentences that drift to unrelated topics break unity and should be removed or moved.

A word or phrase that connects ideas and shows how sentences or paragraphs relate. Examples include however, therefore, in addition, and finally.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number. A singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb, even when other words intervene.

The rule that a pronoun must match its antecedent in number, gender, and person. A singular antecedent takes a singular pronoun such as he, she, or it.

A group of words punctuated as a sentence but missing a subject, a complete verb, or a complete thought. Fragments must be joined to another sentence or expanded.

Two or more independent clauses joined without correct punctuation or a conjunction. It can be fixed with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction.

The conventions for placing commas to separate items in a list, set off introductory phrases, and mark nonessential information. Commas should never join two complete sentences alone.

A word, phrase, or clause that describes another word. A misplaced modifier sits too far from the word it describes, creating confusion or unintended meaning.

The emotional or cultural association a word carries beyond its literal meaning. Words with similar definitions can feel positive, negative, or neutral, affecting a reader's response.

A sentence construction in which the subject performs the action, as in the chef cooked the meal. Active voice is usually clearer and more direct than passive voice.

A comparison of two quantities by division, often written as a fraction or with a colon. Ratios describe relationships such as miles per hour or students per teacher.

An equation stating that two ratios are equal. Proportions are solved by cross-multiplying and are used for scaling recipes, maps, and similar figures.

A rate expressed as an amount per one unit of another quantity, such as cost per ounce or miles per gallon. Unit rates make comparisons between different offers easier.

A ratio that compares a number to one hundred. Percentages express parts of a whole and are used for discounts, interest, tax, and data comparisons.

The arithmetic average of a data set, found by adding all values and dividing by the number of values. The mean can be pulled up or down by unusually large or small values.

The middle value of a data set arranged in order. If there are two middle values, the median is their average, and it is less affected by extreme values than the mean.

An equation whose graph is a straight line, commonly written as y equals mx plus b. The slope m shows the rate of change and b is the y-intercept.

The measure of steepness of a line, calculated as rise over run or change in y divided by change in x. Slope describes how quickly one quantity changes relative to another.

A letter or symbol that stands for an unknown or changing number in an expression or equation. Solving an equation means finding the value that makes it true.

A testable prediction or proposed explanation that can be checked through observation or experiment. A hypothesis must be specific enough to be supported or rejected by evidence.

An investigation in which only one factor is changed at a time while all other conditions are held constant. This design allows researchers to attribute results to the tested factor.

The factor that is measured or observed in an experiment and that responds to changes in another factor. It is the outcome researchers record as data.

The process by which green plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make sugar and release oxygen. It converts light energy into chemical energy stored in food.

A community of living organisms interacting with each other and with the nonliving parts of their environment, such as water, soil, and air. Energy flows through ecosystems in food webs.

The scientific theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into large plates that slowly move over the mantle. Their movement causes earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building.

A firsthand record created by someone who experienced an event, such as a letter, diary, photograph, or speech. Primary sources offer direct but often biased evidence.

A work that interprets or summarizes primary sources, such as a textbook, biography, or encyclopedia article. Secondary sources are useful for overviews but are one step removed from events.

A leaning toward one side that can distort how information is selected or presented. In historical sources, bias reflects the author's viewpoint, interests, and time period.

The arrangement of events in the order they occurred. Timelines and cause-and-effect chains rely on chronology to show how one development led to another.

A formal change or addition to a constitution or law. In the United States, amendments to the Constitution require approval by Congress and the states.

The three parts of the United States federal government: legislative, executive, and judicial. Each has separate powers, and each can check the actions of the others.

A system in which power is divided between a central government and regional governments such as states. Each level has its own responsibilities and authority.