CAAB ATPL Theory cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 contains the international rules of the air; they apply over the high seas and, with local differences, within contracting states.

Squawk 7500 indicates unlawful interference, 7600 radio failure, and 7700 a general emergency.

For converging aircraft of the same category, the aircraft on the right has right of way; for head-on approach, both turn right; the overtaking aircraft keeps clear.

An aircraft in distress has right of way over all other traffic, and other aircraft must give way and not impede it.

In ICAO Class C airspace, VFR flights are permitted and require an ATC clearance; IFR flights are separated from all other IFR and VFR traffic.

A certificate of airworthiness is issued by the state of registry and must be valid for international flight, subject to special permits.

Aircraft nationality and registration marks are governed by ICAO Annex 7; the registration mark identifies the state of registry.

A controlled flight must obtain and maintain an ATC clearance before entering controlled airspace and must comply with clearance limits.

A four-stroke reciprocating engine completes intake, compression, power, and exhaust in two crankshaft revolutions.

Indicated airspeed uses total pressure minus static pressure; the altimeter and vertical speed indicator use static pressure.

Hydraulic pressure P = F/A; Pascal's law transmits pressure undiminished through a confined fluid.

Electrical power P = V × I; alternators produce alternating current, which is rectified for direct-current systems.

A gyroscope resists changes in orientation by rigidity in space and precesses when a force is applied.

Turbine thrust approximately equals mass flow times velocity change plus a pressure-thrust term at the exhaust nozzle.

Detonation in a reciprocating engine can be promoted by low octane fuel, high manifold pressure, high cylinder temperature, or an excessively lean mixture.

Aircraft fuel systems must prevent vapour lock; fuel tanks are vented to maintain pressure and allow fuel flow as altitude changes.

Density altitude increases with high elevation, high temperature, high humidity, and low pressure; it reduces engine, propeller, and wing performance.

Takeoff distance increases with higher weight, tailwind, upslope, high density altitude, and a wet or grass runway.

V1 is the takeoff decision speed, Vr the rotation speed, V2 the takeoff safety speed, and Vref the landing reference speed.

A forward centre of gravity increases stall speed and reduces pitch authority; an aft centre of gravity reduces longitudinal stability.

Fuel plan components include taxi fuel, trip fuel, contingency fuel, alternate fuel, and final reserve fuel.

Climb gradient percent equals height gain divided by horizontal distance, multiplied by 100.

Crosswind component equals wind speed times sine of the wind angle; headwind component equals wind speed times cosine of that angle.

In a level turn, load factor n = 1/cos(bank angle); stall speed increases with the square root of load factor.

Hypoxia symptoms can include euphoria, impaired judgement, headache, and cyanosis; time of useful consciousness falls rapidly with increasing altitude.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness, tingling, and chest tightness; it can mimic hypoxia and is treated by controlled breathing and reducing breathing rate.

The somatogravic illusion during rapid acceleration can create a false nose-up sensation, leading a pilot to push forward.

Rods provide low-light and peripheral vision but no colour; full dark adaptation can take about 30 minutes.

Acute fatigue impairs reaction time, attention, and decision making; chronic fatigue accumulates over time and requires rest to recover.

Alcohol reduces judgement and coordination; even after alcohol is eliminated, hangover effects can impair performance.

Performance generally follows an inverted-U curve with arousal: too little or too much arousal degrades performance.

Positive G loading causes blood pooling in the legs; straining manoeuvres and G-suits help maintain blood pressure and brain perfusion.

ISA sea-level values are 15°C, 1013.25 hPa, and a lapse rate of 1.98°C per 1000 ft up to 36,090 ft.

QNH makes the altimeter indicate elevation above mean sea level; QFE indicates height above the reference datum; QNE uses 1013.25 hPa.

Cumulonimbus clouds contain strong updrafts and downdrafts, icing, hail, lightning, and turbulence; avoid them.

Advection fog forms when warm moist air moves over a colder surface; radiation fog forms on clear, calm nights with surface cooling.

A lapse rate greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate indicates absolute instability; a lapse rate less than the saturated adiabatic rate indicates absolute stability.

In the Northern Hemisphere, surface wind generally veers with height in the friction layer as friction decreases.

Clear ice forms from large supercooled droplets that freeze slowly and spread; rime ice forms from small droplets that freeze quickly.

When flying from high pressure to low pressure without resetting the altimeter, the true altitude is lower than indicated.

One minute of latitude equals one nautical mile; one degree of latitude equals 60 NM.

A great circle is the shortest path between two points on a sphere; a rhumb line maintains a constant true track.

True bearing = magnetic bearing + easterly variation; magnetic bearing = true bearing − easterly variation.

Fifteen degrees of longitude corresponds to one hour of time difference; UTC is the reference for aviation time.

A VOR radial is a magnetic bearing from the station; the CDI indicates left or right deviation from the selected radial.

In the wind triangle, true heading plus drift equals true track; wind correction angle opposes drift.

GPS RAIM checks whether enough satellites are available for a reliable position; RAIM prediction is required for some approaches.

Altimeter indications: indicated altitude uses current setting; true altitude is actual height above mean sea level; pressure altitude uses 1013.25 hPa.

MAYDAY repeated three times signals distress and grave, imminent danger; PAN PAN repeated three times signals urgency.

The sterile cockpit rule prohibits nonessential conversation during taxi, takeoff, approach, and landing.

A rejected takeoff decision must be made before V1; after V1 the takeoff is normally continued unless the aircraft is unsafe.

After a decompression, pilots don oxygen masks, establish communications, and perform an emergency descent to a breathable cabin altitude.

An engine fire procedure typically includes shutting off fuel, air, and ignition as applicable, discharging the extinguisher, and landing as soon as practicable.

A runway incursion occurs when an aircraft, vehicle, or person enters a protected runway area without clearance; hold-short markings must not be crossed without clearance.

CRM includes situational awareness, workload management, communication, and assertiveness; challenge-and-response checklists verify critical actions.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz is monitored for distress and urgency communications.

Lift = CL × 0.5 × ρ × V² × S, where CL is lift coefficient, ρ air density, V true airspeed, and S wing area.

Induced drag decreases with increasing speed; parasite drag increases with the square of speed.

A stall occurs at the critical angle of attack, independent of airspeed and weight; stall speed varies with weight, load factor, and configuration.

In a level turn, load factor n = 1/cos(bank); stall speed increases by the square root of n.

Dihedral provides lateral stability; the vertical fin provides directional stability; centre of gravity position affects longitudinal stability.

Flaps increase lift coefficient and drag, allowing a lower stall speed and steeper approach, but may reduce climb performance.

Ground effect reduces induced drag and wingtip vortices when the aircraft is within about one wingspan of the surface.

As speed increases toward critical Mach number, local airflow reaches Mach 1, shock waves form, and drag rises sharply.

The ICAO phonetic alphabet uses Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Pilots must read back clearances affecting safety, including runway, altitude, heading, frequency, and hold-short instructions.

MAYDAY repeated three times is the distress signal; PAN PAN repeated three times is the urgency signal.

121.5 MHz is the international emergency frequency for distress and urgency.

Squawk 7600 for radio failure, 7500 for unlawful interference, and 7700 for general emergency.

Standard phraseology includes 'say again' for repeat, 'standby' for wait, and 'unable' for inability to comply.

A loss-of-communication flight should squawk 7600 and follow the published procedures for the airspace and flight rules.

When a clearance cannot be accepted, pilots should reply 'unable' and state the reason if practicable.