Fazil Degree Examination cheat sheet

Arabic root system: most words derive from a triliteral (three-consonant) root; e.g., ك-ت-ب yields كَتَبَ (he wrote), كِتَاب (book), مَكْتَبَة (library).

Arabic has 28 letters; 14 are sun letters (assimilate the definite article: الشَّمْس) and 14 are moon letters (pronounce the lām: القَمَر).

Case endings (iʿrāb): nominative -u, accusative -a, genitive -i; the dual adds -āni (nom.) and -ayni (acc./gen.).

Verb tense: الماضي (perfect) marks completed action; المضارع (imperfect) marks ongoing or future action; الأمر is the imperative.

Broken plurals (جمع التكسير) change the internal vowel pattern (كِتَاب → كُتُب); sound plurals add -ūn/-īn (masc.) or -āt (fem.).

Pre-Islamic poetry: the muʿallaqāt are seven (or ten) celebrated odes; the qasīda opens with the nasīb, a lament over the abandoned campsite.

Al-Jāhiliyya poetry conventions: atlāl (ruins), nasīb (love prelude), raḥīl (journey), madīḥ (praise), hijāʾ (invective), fakhr (boasting).

Modern Arabic literature: Maḥmūd Taymūr and Najīb Maḥfūẓ pioneered the Arabic novel; Maḥfūẓ won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988.

The Qurʾān has 114 sūras and 6,236 verses (by the standard Kufan count); the longest is al-Baqara (2), the shortest is al-Kawthar (108).

Sūras revealed in Mecca stress tawḥīd, resurrection, and prophethood; Medinan sūras stress law, community, and treaties.

The muḥkamāt are clear, decisive verses; the mutashābihāt are ambiguous verses whose interpretation is contested (Q 3:7).

Hadith grading: ṣaḥīḥ (sound), ḥasan (good), ḍaʿīf (weak), mawḍūʿ (fabricated); a ṣaḥīḥ chain must be continuous, just, accurate, and free of hidden defects.

The ṣaḥīḥayn are the collections of al-Bukhārī and Muslim; the other four Sunan are Abū Dāwūd, al-Tirmidhī, al-Nasāʾī, and Ibn Māja.

A hadith has two parts: isnād (chain of narrators) and matn (the text of the report).

Naskh (abrogation) means a later ruling replaces an earlier one; the Qurʾān may abrogate the Qurʾān, and the Sunna may abrogate the Sunna.

The five rulings (al-aḥkām al-khamsa): farḍ/wājib (obligatory), mandūb (recommended), mubāḥ (permitted), makrūh (disliked), ḥarām (forbidden).

Four Sunni schools: Ḥanafī (Abū Ḥanīfa), Mālikī (Mālik ibn Anas), Shāfiʿī (al-Shāfiʿī), Ḥanbalī (Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal).

Sources (uṣūl al-fiqh): Qurʾān, Sunna, ijmāʿ (consensus), qiyās (analogy); secondary sources include iṣtiḥsān, maṣlaḥa, and ʿurf.

Pillars of ṣalāh: takbīr, qiyām, qirāʾa, rukūʿ, sujūd, and the final sitting; the number of rakʿāt varies: 2 (Fajr), 4 (Ẓuhr, ʿAṣr, ʿIshāʾ), 3 (Maghrib).

Zakāt is 2.5% of wealth held for one lunar year above the niṣāb (roughly 85g gold or 595g silver).

Ḥajj pillars: iḥrām, ṭawāf al-ifāḍa, and standing at ʿArafa on 9 Dhū al-Ḥijja.

Fiqh terminology: farḍ is a duty whose omission is sinful; wājib is binding but less emphatic in Ḥanafī usage; sunna is the Prophet's practice.

Tawḥīd has three classical dimensions: tawḥīd al-rubūbiyya (lordship), tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya (worship), and tawḥīd al-asmāʾ wa-l-ṣifāt (names and attributes).

Six articles of īmān: belief in Allah, angels, revealed books, prophets, the Last Day, and divine decree (qadar).

Major theological schools: Ashʿariyya (Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī), Māturīdiyya (Abū Manṣūr al-Māturīdī), and Muʿtazila (rationalist, five principles).

Muʿtazilī five principles: tawḥīd, ʿadl, waʿd wa-waʿīd, manzila bayn al-manzilatayn, and al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-l-nahy ʿan al-munkar.

Kalām is speculative theology; its classical subject matter is the essence and attributes of God and the createdness of the Qurʾān.

Sufism (taṣawwuf) emphasizes ihsān, dhikr, and the purification of the soul; al-Ghazālī's Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn is a landmark synthesis.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subjects take singular verbs; indefinite pronouns (everyone, each, neither) are singular; 'neither...nor' takes the verb of the nearer subject.

Tense sequence: in reported speech, present becomes past, past becomes past perfect, and 'will' becomes 'would'.

Articles: 'a/an' before singular count nouns (a before consonant sounds, an before vowel sounds); 'the' for specific or unique referents.

Passive voice: be + past participle; the object of the active becomes the subject of the passive (They wrote the letter → The letter was written).

Conditionals: zero (present/present), first (present/will), second (past/would), third (past perfect/would have).

Prepositions of time: in (months, years, seasons), on (days, dates), at (clock times, night, noon).

Common collocations: make a decision, do homework, take part in, pay attention to, depend on, consist of.

Bangla alphabet: 11 vowels (স্বরবর্ণ) and 39 consonants (ব্যঞ্জনবর্ণ), plus 10 vowel signs (কার).

Parts of speech (পদ): বিশেষ্য (noun), বিশেষণ (adjective), সর্বনাম (pronoun), ক্রিয়া (verb), অব্যয় (indeclinable).

Sandhi (সন্ধি): vowel sandhi (স্বরসন্ধি), consonant sandhi (ব্যঞ্জনসন্ধি), and visarga sandhi (বিসর্গসন্ধি).

Bengali Renaissance figures: Michael Madhusudan Dutt (মেঘনাদবধ কাব্য), Rabindranath Tagore (গীতাঞ্জলি), Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (আনন্দমঠ).

Kazi Nazrul Islam, the national poet, composed বিদ্রোহী; his collected works include অগ্নিবীণা.

Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for Gitanjali (গীতাঞ্জলি).

Bangla grammar: বচন (number: একবচন/বহুবচন), লিঙ্গ (gender: পুংলিঙ্গ/স্ত্রীলিঙ্গ), পুরুষ (person: প্রথম/দ্বিতীয়/তৃতীয়).

The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) received the first revelation in 610 CE in the cave of Ḥirāʾ; the Hijra to Medina occurred in 622 CE, the start of the Islamic calendar.

The four rightly guided caliphs (al-Khulafāʾ al-Rāshidūn): Abū Bakr, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, and ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib.

The Battle of Badr (2 AH/624 CE) was the first major battle; the Battle of Uhud followed in 3 AH/625 CE.

The Umayyad dynasty (661–750 CE) was founded by Muʿāwiya with its capital at Damascus; the Abbasid dynasty (750–1258 CE) built Baghdad as its capital.

Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) lasted from 711 to 1492 CE; the Umayyad emirate of Córdoba was established by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I.

The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) comprised five dynasties: Slave, Khaljī, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lōdī.

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857 CE) was founded by Bābur after the First Battle of Panipat; Shāh Jahān built the Taj Mahal.

The United Nations was founded on 24 October 1945; its principal organs include the General Assembly, Security Council, and ICJ, based in The Hague.

The UN Security Council has five permanent members with veto power: China, France, Russia, the UK, and the USA.

Bangladesh gained independence in 1971; its capital is Dhaka; its national anthem (আমার সোনার বাংলা) was written by Rabindranath Tagore.

The SAARC secretariat is in Kathmandu, Nepal; the organization was founded in 1985 in Dhaka.

The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) has its headquarters in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and was founded in 1969.

Nobel Prizes are awarded annually in Physics, Chemistry, Medicine, Literature, Peace, and Economic Sciences; the Peace Prize is awarded in Oslo.

The longest river in the world is generally cited as the Nile; the Amazon carries the greatest volume of water.

Arabic verb forms (أوزان): Form I فَعَلَ; Form II فَعَّلَ (intensive/causative); Form III فَاعَلَ (mutual); Form IV أَفْعَلَ (causative); Form X اِسْتَفْعَلَ (seeking).

The Arabic definite article ال is written but not pronounced before sun letters; it is pronounced before moon letters.

Arabic word order defaults to verb-subject-object (VSO) in classical prose; nominal sentences (الجملة الاسمية) begin with a subject and predicate.

Arabic literature periods: Jāhiliyya (pre-Islamic), Islamic, Umayyad, Abbasid, Andalusian, and modern (nahḍa).

The maqāma genre, pioneered by al-Hamadhānī and refined by al-Ḥarīrī, uses rhymed prose (sajʿ) and a trickster narrator.

Arabic prosody (ʿarūḍ): a line (bayt) has two hemistichs (ṣadr and ʿajuz); meters (buḥūr) number sixteen in the classical system.

The Nahḍa (Arab renaissance) of the 19th century revived classical forms and introduced the printing press and journalism to Arabic letters.

The first revelation was Q 96:1–5 (Sūrat al-ʿAlaq); the last complete sūra revealed is generally identified as al-Naṣr.

Makkiyya sūras number about 86; Madaniyya about 28, though scholars differ on the exact count.

The seven canonical recitations (qirāʾāt) are transmitted through chains traced to the Prophet; the Ḥafṣ ʿan ʿĀṣim reading is the most widespread today.

Ḥadīth qudsī is a report in which the Prophet conveys words of God not included in the Qurʾān; it differs from the Qurʾān in wording and status.

ʿIlm al-rijāl evaluates narrators; terms like thiqa (trustworthy), ṣadūq (truthful), and ḍaʿīf (weak) grade their reliability.

The six authentic books (al-kutub al-sitta) are al-Bukhārī, Muslim, Abū Dāwūd, al-Tirmidhī, al-Nasāʾī, and Ibn Māja.

Asbāb al-nuzūl (occasions of revelation) records the circumstances that prompted specific verses, aiding contextual interpretation.

Wuḍūʾ obligations (farāʾiḍ): washing the face, arms to the elbows, wiping the head, and washing the feet to the ankles.

Wuḍūʾ nullifiers include anything exiting the private parts, loss of consciousness, and direct skin contact with a non-maḥram in the Shāfiʿī school.

Ghusl becomes obligatory after major ritual impurity (janāba), menstruation (ḥayḍ), and postpartum bleeding (nifās).

Ṣalāh times: Fajr (dawn to sunrise), Ẓuhr (after zenith), ʿAṣr (mid-afternoon), Maghrib (after sunset), ʿIshāʾ (after twilight).

Ṣawm (fasting) is obligatory in Ramaḍān; it is invalidated by eating, drinking, and intentional vomiting during daylight hours.

Hudūd are fixed penalties prescribed in the Qurʾān and Sunna; taʿzīr is a discretionary penalty left to the judge.

Marriage (nikāḥ) requires offer and acceptance, two witnesses, and the bride's consent; the mahr is a mandatory gift to the bride.

The Ashʿarī school holds that God's attributes are real but unlike created attributes (bī-lā kayf, 'without asking how').

The Muʿtazila held the Qurʾān to be created; the Ashʿarī and Ḥanbalī schools affirmed it as uncreated speech of God.

Qadar (divine decree) and free will: Ashʿarīs teach kasb (acquisition), by which humans acquire responsibility for acts God creates.

The Ḥanbalī school, represented by Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal and Ibn Taymiyya, rejects speculative kalām in favor of textual evidence.

Ijmāʿ (consensus) is a source of creedal authority in Sunni thought; the Prophet's ḥadīth 'my community will not agree on error' is cited.

The five pillars of Islām: shahāda, ṣalāh, zakāt, ṣawm, and ḥajj; these structure both creed and practice.

Phrasal verbs: 'give up' (surrender), 'put off' (postpone), 'look into' (investigate), 'turn down' (reject), 'carry out' (perform).

Relative clauses: defining clauses use 'that' or 'which/ who' without commas; non-defining clauses use commas and never 'that'.

Modals: 'must' expresses strong obligation; 'should' expresses advice; 'may/might' express possibility; 'can' expresses ability.

Direct vs indirect speech: pronouns and time expressions shift (now → then, today → that day, here → there).

Punctuation: the semicolon joins two independent clauses; the colon introduces a list or explanation; the apostrophe marks possession or contraction.

Common error: 'less' with uncountable nouns, 'fewer' with countable nouns; 'amount' for uncountable, 'number' for countable.

Formal writing avoids contractions, slang, and first-person pronouns in academic registers.

বাংলা বর্ণমালায় মোট ৫০টি বর্ণ: ১১টি স্বরবর্ণ ও ৩৯টি ব্যঞ্জনবর্ণ।

বাংলা সাহিত্যের আদি নিদর্শন চর্যাপদ (৯৫০–১২০০ খ্রিষ্টাব্দ), যা হরপ্রসাদ শাস্ত্রীর সম্পাদনায় প্রকাশিত হয়।

মধ্যযুগের প্রধান কাব্য: শ্রীকৃষ্ণকীর্তন (বড়ু চণ্ডীদাস), মঙ্গলকাব্য, এবং বৈষ্ণব পদাবলি।

আধুনিক বাংলা সাহিত্যের পথিকৃৎ: মাইকেল মধুসূদন দত্ত (অমিত্রাক্ষর ছন্দের প্রবর্তক), বঙ্কিমচন্দ্র চট্টোপাধ্যায়, রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর।

রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর ১৯১৩ সালে গীতাঞ্জলির জন্য নোবেল পুরস্কার পান।

কাজী নজরুল ইসলাম 'বিদ্রোহী' কবিতার রচয়িতা এবং বাংলাদেশের জাতীয় কবি।

বাংলা ব্যাকরণে কারক ছয় প্রকার: কর্তৃ, কর্ম, করণ, সম্প্রদান, অপাদান, অধিকরণ।

The Prophet's biography: born in Mecca in 570 CE (Year of the Elephant); received prophethood at age 40 in 610 CE; died in 632 CE in Medina.

The Farewell Pilgrimage (Ḥajjat al-Wadāʿ) occurred in 10 AH/632 CE; the Prophet delivered the Farewell Sermon at ʿArafa.

The Battle of the Trench (Khandaq) took place in 5 AH/627 CE; the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyya was concluded in 6 AH/628 CE.

The conquest of Mecca (Fatḥ Makka) occurred in 8 AH/630 CE; the Prophet entered the city with clemency.

The Battle of Yarmūk (636 CE) opened the Levant to Muslim rule; the Battle of Qādisiyya (636 CE) led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire.

The Ottoman Empire (1299–1922 CE) captured Constantinople in 1453 CE under Sultan Mehmed II.

Muslim contributions to science: Ibn Sīnā (medicine), al-Khwārizmī (algebra), Ibn al-Haytham (optics), and al-Bīrūnī (astronomy).

The Bangladesh Liberation War began on 26 March 1971; victory was achieved on 16 December 1971 (Vijay Diwas).

The 1971 genocide is commemorated on 25 March as Genocide Day in Bangladesh.

The Bangladesh constitution was adopted on 4 November 1972 and came into force on 16 December 1972.

The UN has 193 member states; the General Assembly meets annually in September in New York.

The World Bank and IMF are headquartered in Washington, D.C.; the WTO is in Geneva.

The Nobel Peace Prize is announced in October and awarded on 10 December, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.

SAARC member states number eight: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

Arabic numerals: the Eastern Arabic forms (٠١٢٣٤٥٦٧٨٩) are used in much of the Arab world; Western forms are used in the Maghrib.

Arabic pronouns: أنا (I), أنتَ (you, m.), أنتِ (you, f.), هو (he), هي (she), نحن (we), أنتم (you, pl.).

The Arabic definite article assimilates before sun letters and remains distinct before moon letters; the hamza in ال is elided in connected speech.

Arabic verbal noun (maṣdar) functions like an English gerund: قراءة (reading), كتابة (writing).

The qaṣīda is a monorhymed ode of at least seven lines; the muʿallaqāt are its most celebrated pre-Islamic examples.

Modern standard Arabic (fuṣḥā) is used in writing and formal speech; colloquial dialects vary by region.

Sūrat al-Fātiḥa is recited in every unit of prayer and is called 'the Mother of the Book' (Umm al-Kitāb).

The Qurʾān is divided into 30 juzʾ, 60 ḥizb, and 114 sūras for recitation purposes.

The Prophet's ḥadīth on intention ('Actions are judged by intentions') is the first ḥadīth in al-Bukhārī's Ṣaḥīḥ.

Ḥadīth terminology: ṣaḥīḥ (sound chain), ḥasan (good chain), ḍaʿīf (weak chain), mursal (missing the Companion link), munqaṭiʿ (broken chain).

The isnād system emerged in the first Islamic century to verify reports; Shuʿba ibn al-Ḥajjāj and Sufyān al-Thawrī were early critics.

Tafsīr bi-l-maʾthūr relies on the Qurʾān, Sunna, and reports of the Companions; tafsīr bi-l-raʾy relies on reasoning.

Ḥanafī school relies heavily on qiyās and iṣtiḥsān; it is the dominant school in South Asia and Turkey.

Mālikī school gives weight to the practice of the people of Medina (ʿamal ahl al-Madīna) and maṣlaḥa.

Shāfiʿī school systematized uṣūl al-fiqh in al-Risāla; it balances text and analogy.

Ḥanbalī school is text-centered and rejects excessive reliance on reason.

Maqāṣid al-sharīʿa: preservation of religion, life, intellect, lineage, and property.

Fatwā is a non-binding legal opinion; qaḍāʾ is a binding court judgment.

Īmān in Sunni theology comprises belief in the heart, confession with the tongue, and action with the limbs.

The Ashʿarī proof of contingency (dalīl al-ḥudūth) argues that the world is originated and therefore requires a Creator.

The Muʿtazila denied the eternity of the Qurʾān and affirmed human free will under divine justice (ʿadl).

The concept of waḥdat al-wujūd (unity of being), associated with Ibn ʿArabī, is a contested Sufi metaphysical doctrine.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) defended philosophy against al-Ghazālī's critique in Tahāfut al-tahāfut.

The concept of taqdīr distinguishes divine decree from human responsibility; the Qurʾān affirms both.

Word formation: prefixes (un-, re-, pre-, dis-) and suffixes (-tion, -ment, -able, -ly) change meaning or part of speech.

Sentence types: simple, compound (coordinating conjunction), complex (subordinating conjunction), and compound-complex.

Common prepositions with verbs: depend on, consist of, insist on, result in, apologize for, congratulate on.

Punctuation of lists: use commas between items and a semicolon if items contain commas.

Spelling: 'i' before 'e' except after 'c' (receive, believe) with exceptions (weird, seize).

Formal register avoids contractions and uses full forms: 'do not' instead of 'don't', 'cannot' instead of 'can't'.

বাংলা ভাষার উৎপত্তি: মাগধী প্রাকৃত থেকে বাংলা ভাষার উদ্ভব; ড. মুহম্মদ শহীদুল্লাহ ও সুনীতিকুমার চট্টোপাধ্যায়ের মত উল্লেখযোগ্য।

বাংলা ভাষার যুগ বিভাগ: আদি (৯৫০–১২০০), মধ্য (১২০০–১৮০০), আধুনিক (১৮০০–বর্তমান)।

বাংলা শব্দভাণ্ডার: তৎসম, তদ্ভব, দেশি, বিদেশি ও মিশ্র শব্দ।

বাংলা ছন্দ: স্বরবৃত্ত, মাত্রাবৃত্ত, অক্ষরবৃত্ত ও গদ্যছন্দ।

রবীন্দ্রনাথের কাব্যগ্রন্থ: মানসী, সোনার তরী, বলাকা, পুনশ্চ, শেষ লেখা।

জীবনানন্দ দাশ আধুনিক বাংলা কবিতার প্রধান কবি; তাঁর কাব্যগ্রন্থ রূপসী বাংলা।

The rightly guided caliphs expanded Islam: Abū Bakr suppressed the Ridda wars; ʿUmar conquered Syria, Iraq, and Egypt.

The Battle of Ṣiffīn (657 CE) between ʿAlī and Muʿāwiya led to arbitration and the rise of the Khawārij.

The Abbasid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd patronized the Bayt al-Ḥikma, a center for translation of Greek works.

Baghdad was founded by the Abbasid caliph al-Manṣūr in 762 CE.

The Mongol sack of Baghdad in 1258 CE ended the Abbasid caliphate in its eastern seat.

The Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 CE brought the caliphate to Istanbul; the Ottoman caliphate was abolished in 1924.

The Bangladesh government's official language is Bangla; English is used in administration and higher education.

The 1972 constitution's fundamental principles: nationalism, socialism, democracy, and secularism.

The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) number 17 and were adopted in 2015 with a 2030 target.

The Asian Development Bank is headquartered in Manila, Philippines; it was established in 1966.

The Nobel Prize in Literature 2024 was awarded to Han Kang of South Korea.

The World Health Organization (WHO) is headquartered in Geneva and was founded in 1948.

Arabic grammar terms: mubtadaʾ (subject of nominal sentence), khabar (predicate), fāʿil (agent), mafʿūl bihi (object).

The Arabic verb conjugates for gender in the second and third persons; the first person is gender-neutral.

The Arabic dual is used for exactly two; the plural begins at three.

Arabic numbers are read in reverse order for units and tens: 21 = واحد وعشرون (one and twenty).

Arabic literature in the modern period includes the mahjar (émigré) school in the Americas, led by Jubrān Khalīl Jubrān.

Arabic rhetoric (ʿilm al-balāgha) covers maʿānī (syntax), bayān (figures), and badīʿ (embellishments).

The doctrine of iʿjāz al-Qurʾān holds that the Qurʾān's inimitability lies in its eloquence and content.

The ḥadīth 'Whoever treads a path seeking knowledge, Allah will make easy for him the path to Paradise' is found in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.

The ḥadīth of Jibrīl outlines Islām, īmān, and iḥsān; it is reported in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim and elsewhere.

Tafsīr works: al-Ṭabarī's Jāmiʿ al-bayān, al-Zamakhsharī's al-Kashshāf, and Ibn Kathīr's Tafsīr al-Qurʾān al-ʿaẓīm.

The Qurʾān was revealed over approximately 23 years, beginning in 610 CE and ending in 632 CE.

The ʿUthmānic codex standardized the written text of the Qurʾān during ʿUthmān's caliphate.

Ṣalāh prerequisites: purity of body, clothing, and place; facing the qibla; and correct timing.

The Friday prayer (jumuʿa) replaces Ẓuhr and requires a congregation and a khuṭba (sermon).

Zakāt recipients (aṣnāf) are eight categories listed in Q 9:60, including the poor and the needy.

Ḥajj rites include iḥrām, ṭawāf, saʿy between Ṣafā and Marwa, standing at ʿArafa, and the stoning of the jamarāt.

Qurbānī (sacrifice) is prescribed during the days of Eid al-Aḍḥā and commemorates Ibrāhīm's trial.

Trade (bayʿ) requires mutual consent, a lawful object, and a known price; ribā (interest) is prohibited.

The concept of tawba (repentance) requires abandoning the sin, regretting it, and resolving not to return to it.

Shirk is the gravest sin in Islamic theology; it is the association of partners with God.

The names of God (al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā) number 99 in the famous ḥadīth; each conveys a divine attribute.

The doctrine of shafāʿa (intercession) is affirmed in Sunni theology for the Prophet on the Day of Judgment.

The concept of barzakh refers to the intermediate state between death and resurrection.

The signs of the Hour (ashrāṭ al-sāʿa) are discussed in ḥadīth literature, including the appearance of the Mahdī and the Dajjāl.

Active vs passive: active emphasizes the doer; passive emphasizes the action or receiver.

Common idioms: 'a piece of cake' (easy), 'break the ice' (start a conversation), 'once in a blue moon' (rarely).

Word order in questions: auxiliary + subject + main verb (Where did you go?).

Reported questions use statement order: He asked where I had gone.

Adjectives ending in -ed describe feelings; -ing adjectives describe causes (bored vs boring).

Countable nouns take 'many' and 'few'; uncountable nouns take 'much' and 'little'.

বাংলা ভাষায় বাক্য দুই প্রকার অর্থানুসারে: সরল বাক্য ও জটিল বাক্য; গঠনানুসারে সরল, যৌগিক ও জটিল।

বাংলা ভাষায় সমাস ছয় প্রকার: দ্বন্দ্ব, কর্মধারয়, তৎপুরুষ, বহুব্রীহি, দ্বিগু ও অব্যয়ীভাব।

বাংলা ভাষায় কারক ও বিভক্তি: কর্তৃ কারকে শূন্য বিভক্তি, কর্ম কারকে 'কে' বিভক্তি প্রযোজ্য।

বাংলা ভাষায় ণত্ব ও ষত্ব বিধান সংস্কৃত শব্দে প্রযোজ্য; তদ্ভব শব্দে সাধারণত প্রযোজ্য নয়।

বাংলা ভাষায় উপসর্গ তিন প্রকার: বাংলা, সংস্কৃত ও বিদেশি উপসর্গ।

বাংলা ভাষায় প্রবাদ-প্রবচন ও খনার বচন লোকসাহিত্যের গুরুত্বপূর্ণ অংশ।

The Prophet's migration to Medina in 622 CE established the first Islamic state and the Constitution of Medina.

The Battle of Khaybar (7 AH/628 CE) ended with a treaty with the Jewish tribes of Khaybar.

The Battle of Ḥunayn (8 AH/630 CE) followed the conquest of Mecca; the Qurʾān mentions it in Sūrat al-Tawba.

The Prophet's Farewell Sermon affirmed the sanctity of life, property, and honor, and declared equality among believers.

The rightly guided caliph ʿUmar established the Islamic calendar with the Hijra as its starting point.

The Battle of Tours (732 CE) in France halted the northward expansion of Muslim forces in Europe.

The Bangladesh national flag was adopted in 1972; it features a green field with a red disc.

The Bangladesh national emblem includes the water lily, the national flower.

The Bangladesh parliament is called the Jatiya Sangsad; it has 350 seats, including 50 reserved for women.

The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh; the country hosts the two holy mosques in Mecca and Medina.

The Nobel Peace Prize 2024 was awarded to Nihon Hidankyo of Japan.

The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the UN and sits in The Hague.

Arabic morphology: the root consonants carry the core meaning; the vowel pattern (wazn) determines the grammatical form.

The Arabic passive verb changes the internal vowels: كَتَبَ → كُتِبَ (it was written).

Arabic idāfa (construct state) expresses possession: كتابُ الطالبِ (the student's book); the first noun takes no article.

The Arabic comparative form follows the pattern أَفْعَل: أكبر (bigger), أفضل (better).

Arabic poetry's classical meters include al-ṭawīl, al-basīṭ, al-kāmil, and al-wāfir.

The Arabic short story flourished in the 20th century with writers such as Yūsuf Idrīs and Zakariyyā Tāmir.

The Qurʾān's longest verse is Q 2:282, the verse of debt; the shortest is Q 55:64 (مُدْهَامَّتَانِ).

The sūra al-Fātiḥa has seven verses and is recited in every rakʿa of prayer.

The ḥadīth 'The best of you are those who learn the Qurʾān and teach it' is reported in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī.

Ḥadīth scholars distinguish ʿadāla (moral integrity) and ḍabṭ (accuracy) as conditions for a reliable narrator.

The term sunna in ḥadīth studies refers to the Prophet's sayings, actions, and tacit approvals.

The science of ʿilm al-muṣṭalaḥ studies the terminology and classification of ḥadīth.

Ṣalāh is invalidated by speaking intentionally, eating, drinking, or turning away from the qibla without excuse.

The witr prayer is a confirmed sunna performed after ʿIshāʾ; it consists of an odd number of rakʿāt.

Zakāt al-fiṭr is due at the end of Ramaḍān and is obligatory on every Muslim who possesses surplus food for the day.

Fasting is excused for the sick, the traveler, the pregnant, and the nursing woman, with make-up or expiation as applicable.

The nikāḥ contract requires the bride's consent; forced marriage is invalid in Islamic law.

Ṭalāq (divorce) is a unilateral pronouncement by the husband; the ʿidda is the waiting period before remarriage.

The Ashʿarī doctrine of kasb holds that God creates human acts and humans acquire (iktasaba) them, grounding moral responsibility.

The Muʿtazila affirmed that God is bound by rational moral standards (ʿadl) and cannot act unjustly.

The concept of ḥikma (wisdom) in theology explains the purposefulness of divine creation.

The doctrine of nubuwwa (prophethood) affirms that prophets are chosen by God and are protected from major sin (ʿiṣma).

The Qurʾān affirms the existence of angels, jinn, and the Day of Judgment as articles of faith.

The term ahl al-sunna wa-l-jamāʿa designates the mainstream Sunni community.

Direct speech punctuation: quotation marks enclose the exact words; the comma or period goes inside the closing quotation mark in American usage.

Subject complements follow linking verbs (be, seem, become) and rename or describe the subject.

Parallel structure requires matching grammatical forms in a list or comparison.

Commonly confused words: affect (verb) vs effect (noun); principal (main) vs principle (rule).

Conditional inversion: 'Had I known' replaces 'If I had known' in formal writing.

The passive with modals: 'The work must be completed by Friday' (modal + be + past participle).

বাংলা সাহিত্যে প্রথম মুসলিম কবি: শাহ মুহম্মদ সগীর, যিনি 'ইউসুফ-জুলেখা' কাব্য রচনা করেন।

বাংলা সাহিত্যের মধ্যযুগে অনুবাদ সাহিত্য: 'পদ্মাবতী' (আলাওল), 'রসুল বিজয়' (শাহ মুহম্মদ সগীর)।

বাংলা সাহিত্যে প্রথম সার্থক উপন্যাস: বঙ্কিমচন্দ্র চট্টোপাধ্যায়ের 'দুর্গেশনন্দিনী' (১৮৬৫)।

বাংলা সাহিত্যে প্রথম সার্থক নাটক: মাইকেল মধুসূদন দত্তের 'শর্মিষ্ঠা' (১৮৫৯)।

বাংলা সাহিত্যে প্রথম সার্থক মহাকাব্য: মাইকেল মধুসূদন দত্তের 'মেঘনাদবধ কাব্য' (১৮৬১)।

বাংলা ভাষায় প্রথম সংবাদপত্র: 'সমাচার দর্পণ' (১৮১৮), সম্পাদক জেমস অগাস্টাস হিকি।

The Prophet's early life: orphaned at six, raised by his grandfather ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, then by his uncle Abū Ṭālib.

The first caliph Abū Bakr commissioned the compilation of the Qurʾān after the Battle of Yamāma.

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb established the dīwān (register) system and the Islamic lunar calendar.

ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān standardized the Qurʾānic codex and was martyred in 656 CE.

ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib moved the capital to Kufa; his caliphate was marked by the first Muslim civil war (fitna).

The Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik introduced Arabic as the official administrative language and minted the first Islamic coins.

The Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics conducts the national census; the 2022 census recorded a population of about 165 million.

The Bangladesh currency is the taka (BDT); the central bank is the Bangladesh Bank.

The UN Human Development Index ranks countries by life expectancy, education, and income.

The World Economic Forum meets annually in Davos, Switzerland.

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2024 was awarded for foundational discoveries in machine learning with artificial neural networks.

The International Monetary Fund's special drawing right (SDR) is a reserve asset based on a basket of major currencies.

Arabic script is written right to left; short vowels are marked with diacritics (ḥarakāt) that are often omitted in modern texts.

The hamza (ء) is a glottal stop; its seat (alif, wāw, yāʾ) depends on the surrounding vowels.

Arabic prepositions govern the genitive: في البيتِ (in the house), من المدرسةِ (from the school).

The Arabic relative pronoun: الذي (m. sing.), التي (f. sing.), الذين (m. pl.), اللاتي (f. pl.).

Arabic literature's pre-Islamic poets include Imruʾ al-Qays, Ṭarafa, and Zuhayr ibn Abī Sulmā.

The Abbasid poet al-Mutanabbī is celebrated for his panegyrics and his mastery of Arabic rhetoric.

The Qurʾān describes itself as 'guidance for mankind' (hudan li-l-nās) in Q 2:185.

Sūrat al-Kahf is recited on Fridays according to a ḥadīth in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.

The ḥadīth 'None of you truly believes until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself' is in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī and Muslim.

The term mutawātir describes a ḥadīth transmitted by so many narrators at every stage that collusion is impossible.

The term āḥād describes a ḥadīth with fewer narrators at some stage; it yields probable rather than certain knowledge.

Tafsīr al-Qurṭubī and Tafsīr al-Rāzī are major classical commentaries.

The conditions of ṣalāh include purity, covering the ʿawra, facing the qibla, and correct intention (niyya).

The ʿawra for men is from the navel to the knee; for women, the whole body except the face and hands.

The sunan of ṣalāh include the opening takbīr, the istiʿādha, and the tashahhud.

Ṣawm is broken by eating, drinking, or sexual intercourse during daylight; expiation (kaffāra) applies to intercourse.

Ḥajj is obligatory once in a lifetime for those who are physically and financially able.

The niṣāb for zakāt on gold is about 85 grams; on silver about 595 grams.

The doctrine of tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya holds that worship is due to God alone; it is the message of all prophets.

The term ilḥād denotes deviation from correct belief, particularly regarding God's names and attributes.

The doctrine of qadar affirms that God's knowledge and will encompass all things, while humans retain responsibility.

The concept of iḥsān is defined in the ḥadīth of Jibrīl as worshipping God as though you see Him.

The Muʿtazilī principle of al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf wa-l-nahy ʿan al-munkar obliges Muslims to enjoin good and forbid evil.

The Ashʿarī school's doctrine of the beatific vision (ruʾyat Allāh) affirms that believers will see God in the afterlife.

The present perfect links past action to the present: 'I have finished' vs 'I finished' (simple past, completed time).

The past perfect expresses an action completed before another past action: 'She had left before I arrived.'

Gerunds and infinitives: some verbs take gerunds (enjoy doing), others take infinitives (want to do), and some take both with a change in meaning (stop doing vs stop to do).

The definite article is used with superlatives, ordinals, and unique nouns (the best, the first, the sun).

Common collocations with prepositions: interested in, good at, afraid of, married to, responsible for.

The apostrophe marks possession (the student's book) and plural possession (the students' books).

বাংলা ভাষায় সন্ধি প্রধানত তিন প্রকার: স্বরসন্ধি, ব্যঞ্জনসন্ধি ও বিসর্গসন্ধি।

বাংলা ভাষায় সমাসের উদাহরণ: 'রাজপুত্র' = রাজার পুত্র (তৎপুরুষ সমাস)।

বাংলা ভাষায় কারক নির্ণয়ে 'অনুযক্ত' ক্রিয়ার সঙ্গে সম্পর্ক নির্ণয় করা হয়।

বাংলা ভাষায় 'অর্ধতৎসম' শব্দ: গ্রাম, ঘাট, চুলা ইত্যাদি।

বাংলা ভাষায় 'দেশি' শব্দ: কুড়ি, পাঁচ, মাছ, ধান ইত্যাদি।

বাংলা ভাষায় 'বিদেশি' শব্দ: আরবি, ফারসি, ইংরেজি, পর্তুগিজ প্রভৃতি উৎস থেকে আগত শব্দ।

The Prophet's first convert was his wife Khadīja; among men, Abū Bakr; among children, ʿAlī.

The Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar in 622 CE; ʿUmar formalized it.

The Battle of Badr involved about 313 Muslims against roughly 1,000 Quraysh; the Muslims won.

The Treaty of Ḥudaybiyya (6 AH) established a ten-year truce and was called a 'clear victory' in the Qurʾān.

The conquest of Mecca in 8 AH led to the destruction of idols around the Kaʿba.

The Prophet's last sermon at ʿArafa declared that no Arab has superiority over a non-Arab except by piety.

The Bangladesh national game is kabaddi (হা-ডু-ডু); the national animal is the Bengal tiger.

The Bangladesh national bird is the oriental magpie-robin (দোয়েল); the national fruit is the jackfruit.

The United Nations was established after World War II; its charter was signed in San Francisco in 1945.

The World Trade Organization succeeded GATT in 1995 and is headquartered in Geneva.

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2024 recognized work on protein structure prediction.

The Asian Games are held every four years; the 2023 edition was held in Hangzhou, China.

Arabic grammar: the nominal sentence (jumla ismiyya) begins with a noun and has a predicate; the verbal sentence (jumla fiʿliyya) begins with a verb.

Arabic particles: إنَّ (indeed), لعلَّ (perhaps), لكنَّ (but), لأنَّ (because) govern the accusative.

Arabic negation: لا (present), لم (past), لن (future), ما (past), ليس (nominal).

The Arabic elative (ism tafḍīl) follows the pattern أَفْعَل for the masculine and فُعْلَى for the feminine.

The Arabic maṣdar of Form II is تَفْعِيل; of Form III is مُفَاعَلَة; of Form X is اِسْتِفْعَال.

Arabic literature's modern novelists include Najīb Maḥfūẓ, Ṭāhā Ḥusayn, and ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Munīf.

The Qurʾān's first sūra in the codex is al-Fātiḥa; the last is al-Nās.

The ḥadīth of the night journey (isrāʾ and miʿrāj) is reported in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī and Muslim.

The term sunna in ḥadīth studies refers to the Prophet's sayings, actions, and tacit approvals.

The ḥadīth 'Religion is sincerity' is reported in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.

The Qurʾān's challenge to produce a sūra like it is stated in Q 2:23 and Q 10:38.

The ḥadīth 'The strong believer is better and more beloved to Allah than the weak believer' is in Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim.

The conditions for valid ṣalāh include purity, covering the ʿawra, facing the qibla, and correct intention.

The sunan of ṣalāh include the opening takbīr, the istiʿādha, and the tashahhud.

The niṣāb for zakāt on gold is about 85 grams; on silver about 595 grams.

Ḥajj is obligatory once in a lifetime for those who are physically and financially able.

The nikāḥ contract requires offer and acceptance, two witnesses, and the bride's consent.

Ṭalāq is a unilateral pronouncement by the husband; the ʿidda is the waiting period before remarriage.

The Ashʿarī school holds that God's attributes are real but unlike created attributes (bī-lā kayf).

The Muʿtazila held the Qurʾān to be created; the Ashʿarī and Ḥanbalī schools affirmed it as uncreated speech of God.

The concept of qadar affirms that God's knowledge and will encompass all things, while humans retain responsibility.

The Ḥanbalī school rejects speculative kalām in favor of textual evidence.

Ijmāʿ (consensus) is a source of creedal authority in Sunni thought.

The five pillars of Islām: shahāda, ṣalāh, zakāt, ṣawm, and ḥajj.

Phrasal verbs: 'give up' (surrender), 'put off' (postpone), 'look into' (investigate), 'turn down' (reject), 'carry out' (perform).

Relative clauses: defining clauses use 'that' or 'which/who' without commas; non-defining clauses use commas and never 'that'.

Modals: 'must' expresses strong obligation; 'should' expresses advice; 'may/might' express possibility; 'can' expresses ability.

Direct vs indirect speech: pronouns and time expressions shift (now → then, today → that day, here → there).

Punctuation: the semicolon joins two independent clauses; the colon introduces a list or explanation.

Common error: 'less' with uncountable nouns, 'fewer' with countable nouns.

বাংলা বর্ণমালায় মোট ৫০টি বর্ণ: ১১টি স্বরবর্ণ ও ৩৯টি ব্যঞ্জনবর্ণ।

বাংলা সাহিত্যের আদি নিদর্শন চর্যাপদ (৯৫০–১২০০ খ্রিষ্টাব্দ)।

মধ্যযুগের প্রধান কাব্য: শ্রীকৃষ্ণকীর্তন, মঙ্গলকাব্য, এবং বৈষ্ণব পদাবলি।

আধুনিক বাংলা সাহিত্যের পথিকৃৎ: মাইকেল মধুসূদন দত্ত, বঙ্কিমচন্দ্র চট্টোপাধ্যায়, রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর।

রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর ১৯১৩ সালে গীতাঞ্জলির জন্য নোবেল পুরস্কার পান।

কাজী নজরুল ইসলাম 'বিদ্রোহী' কবিতার রচয়িতা এবং বাংলাদেশের জাতীয় কবি।

The Prophet's biography: born in Mecca in 570 CE; received prophethood at age 40 in 610 CE; died in 632 CE in Medina.

The Farewell Pilgrimage occurred in 10 AH/632 CE; the Prophet delivered the Farewell Sermon at ʿArafa.

The Battle of the Trench took place in 5 AH/627 CE; the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyya was concluded in 6 AH/628 CE.

The conquest of Mecca occurred in 8 AH/630 CE.

The Battle of Yarmūk (636 CE) opened the Levant to Muslim rule.

The Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople in 1453 CE under Sultan Mehmed II.

The Bangladesh Liberation War began on 26 March 1971; victory was achieved on 16 December 1971.

The Bangladesh constitution was adopted on 4 November 1972 and came into force on 16 December 1972.

The UN has 193 member states; the General Assembly meets annually in September in New York.

The World Bank and IMF are headquartered in Washington, D.C.; the WTO is in Geneva.

The Nobel Peace Prize is announced in October and awarded on 10 December.

SAARC member states number eight: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

Arabic root system: most words derive from a triliteral root; e.g., ك-ت-ب yields كَتَبَ, كِتَاب, مَكْتَبَة.

Arabic has 28 letters; 14 are sun letters and 14 are moon letters.

Case endings (iʿrāb): nominative -u, accusative -a, genitive -i.

Verb tense: الماضي (perfect) marks completed action; المضارع (imperfect) marks ongoing or future action.

Broken plurals change the internal vowel pattern; sound plurals add -ūn/-īn or -āt.

Pre-Islamic poetry: the muʿallaqāt are celebrated odes; the qasīda opens with the nasīb.

The Qurʾān has 114 sūras and 6,236 verses by the standard Kufan count.

Sūras revealed in Mecca stress tawḥīd, resurrection, and prophethood; Medinan sūras stress law and community.

The muḥkamāt are clear verses; the mutashābihāt are ambiguous verses (Q 3:7).

Hadith grading: ṣaḥīḥ, ḥasan, ḍaʿīf, mawḍūʿ.

The ṣaḥīḥayn are al-Bukhārī and Muslim; the other four Sunan are Abū Dāwūd, al-Tirmidhī, al-Nasāʾī, and Ibn Māja.

A hadith has two parts: isnād (chain) and matn (text).

The five rulings: farḍ/wājib, mandūb, mubāḥ, makrūh, ḥarām.

Four Sunni schools: Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, Ḥanbalī.

Sources: Qurʾān, Sunna, ijmāʿ, qiyās; secondary sources include iṣtiḥsān, maṣlaḥa, and ʿurf.

Pillars of ṣalāh: takbīr, qiyām, qirāʾa, rukūʿ, sujūd, and the final sitting.

Zakāt is 2.5% of wealth held for one lunar year above the niṣāb.

Ḥajj pillars: iḥrām, ṭawāf al-ifāḍa, and standing at ʿArafa.

Tawḥīd has three dimensions: rubūbiyya, ulūhiyya, and asmāʾ wa-l-ṣifāt.

Six articles of īmān: Allah, angels, books, prophets, the Last Day, and qadar.

Major theological schools: Ashʿariyya, Māturīdiyya, and Muʿtazila.

Muʿtazilī five principles: tawḥīd, ʿadl, waʿd wa-waʿīd, manzila bayn al-manzilatayn, al-amr bi-l-maʿrūf.

Kalām is speculative theology; its subject matter includes God's essence and attributes.

Sufism emphasizes iḥsān, dhikr, and purification of the soul.

Subject-verb agreement: singular subjects take singular verbs; indefinite pronouns are singular.

Tense sequence: present becomes past, past becomes past perfect, will becomes would.

Articles: a/an before singular count nouns; the for specific or unique referents.

Passive voice: be + past participle.

Conditionals: zero, first, second, and third.

Prepositions of time: in (months, years), on (days), at (clock times).

বাংলা বর্ণমালায় ১১টি স্বরবর্ণ ও ৩৯টি ব্যঞ্জনবর্ণ।

বাংলা ব্যাকরণে পদ পাঁচ প্রকার: বিশেষ্য, বিশেষণ, সর্বনাম, ক্রিয়া, অব্যয়।

সন্ধি তিন প্রকার: স্বরসন্ধি, ব্যঞ্জনসন্ধি, বিসর্গসন্ধি।

রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর ১৯১৩ সালে নোবেল পুরস্কার পান।

কাজী নজরুল ইসলাম বাংলাদেশের জাতীয় কবি।

বাংলা সাহিত্যের আদি নিদর্শন চর্যাপদ।

The Prophet received the first revelation in 610 CE in the cave of Ḥirāʾ.

The Hijra to Medina occurred in 622 CE, the start of the Islamic calendar.

The four rightly guided caliphs: Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, ʿUthmān, and ʿAlī.

The Battle of Badr (2 AH/624 CE) was the first major battle.

The Umayyad dynasty (661–750 CE) had its capital at Damascus.

The Abbasid dynasty (750–1258 CE) built Baghdad as its capital.

The United Nations was founded on 24 October 1945.

The UN Security Council has five permanent members with veto power.

Bangladesh gained independence in 1971; its capital is Dhaka.

The SAARC secretariat is in Kathmandu, Nepal.

The OIC has its headquarters in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded in Oslo.