Bahrain CAA CPL Theory Exam cheat sheet

Bahrain is a Contracting State of ICAO; national rules are issued as Civil Aviation Regulations (CARs) under the Civil Aviation Authority, and ICAO Annexes apply where not overridden by a CAR.

Airspace classes: A = IFR only, all separated; B = IFR and VFR, all separated; C = IFR separated from all, VFR separated from IFR and given traffic info about VFR; D = IFR separated from IFR, VFR given traffic info; E = IFR separated from IFR only; F and G = no separation service.

VMC minima in Class C-E above 3050 m (10000 ft) AMSL: 8 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m (1000 ft) vertical distance from cloud; at and below 3050 m: 5 km visibility, 1500 m horizontal, 300 m vertical.

VMC minima Class F/G: at and below 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or 300 m AGL (whichever is higher) - 5 km visibility, clear of cloud and in sight of surface; above 900 m - 5 km visibility, 1500 m horizontal, 300 m vertical.

Squawk codes: 7500 unlawful interference, 7600 radio failure, 7700 general emergency. Select 7600 after two-way failure and continue per the last acknowledged clearance or the published lost-communication procedure.

Aircraft must not fly within 5 NM of the Bahrain International Airport reference point below 5000 ft without ATC clearance; VFR flights require a discrete or assigned squawk and two-way radio contact in Classes C and D.

Aerodrome traffic circuit: join downwind at circuit height, normally 1000 ft AGL unless published otherwise; overtake on the side away from the landing direction; land and take off into wind unless the runway in use is specified.

Right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has right-of-way; head-on - both turn right; overtaking - the overtaken aircraft has right-of-way; landing aircraft have priority over aircraft on the ground.

Fuel and documents: VFR flights must carry fuel to destination plus 30 minutes at cruise (45 minutes at night); the aircraft must carry certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, and the journey log.

Four-stroke cycle: intake, compression, power, exhaust - two crankshaft revolutions per cycle; in a four-cylinder engine, one power stroke per half revolution.

Detonation (knocking) is uncontrolled explosive combustion after ignition; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark. Both raise CHT and can damage the engine; remedies are richer mixture, lower power, cooler intake air.

Magneto check: with the engine at run-up RPM, switching off one magneto should give a drop of no more than about 150 RPM and no more than 50 RPM difference between the two magnetos.

Electrical: aircraft DC systems are typically 14 V (12 V battery) or 28 V (24 V battery). The alternator/generator charges through a voltage regulator; the ammeter shows charge or discharge, not battery state of charge.

Hydraulic system: relief valve limits maximum pressure; accumulator damps pressure surges and provides a reserve for emergency operation; check fluid level only with the system depressurised unless the manual states otherwise.

Pitot-static: pitot tube supplies total (ram) pressure to the airspeed indicator only; static ports supply static pressure to ASI, altimeter and VSI. A blocked static port causes the ASI to read high in climb and low in descent.

Landing gear: oleo (shock-absorbing) strut uses compressed air/nitrogen over hydraulic fluid; check extension by down-locks and three green lights; the squat switch prevents gear retraction on the ground.

Turbocharging: exhaust-driven turbine drives a compressor; the wastegate controls manifold pressure. Overboost is prevented by the wastegate controller; use full rich mixture and allow cool-down before shutdown.

Weight and balance: datum is the reference point for arm measurement; moment = weight x arm; CG must lie within the forward and aft limits for all loading states.

Density altitude = pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature; it increases with high elevation, high temperature and low pressure, degrading takeoff, climb and landing performance.

Takeoff distance required = ground roll + distance to 50 ft; multiply the POH figure by 1.15 for a dry grass runway and 1.3 for a wet grass runway unless the POH states otherwise.

Climb gradient (%) = (climb rate ft/min x 60) / groundspeed (kt) x 100; required gradient is derived from obstacle height divided by horizontal distance.

Crosswind component = wind speed x sine of the angle between wind and runway; headwind component = wind speed x cosine of the same angle.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency (typically 5% of trip fuel) + alternate fuel + final reserve (30 min VFR day, 45 min VFR night, 30 min holding for IFR) + extra.

Mass and balance: convert arm to moment by weight x arm; total moment divided by total weight gives the CG position; forward CG increases stall speed and reduces elevator authority; aft CG reduces stability.

True airspeed increases about 2% per 1000 ft for a given IAS at constant temperature; IAS decreases with altitude for a constant TAS.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude + (1013.25 - QNH) x 30 ft per hPa; use airfield elevation when setting QFE.

Load factor n = 1/cos(bank angle) in a level turn; stall speed increases with the square root of load factor (Vs x sqrt(n)).

Hypoxia types: hypoxic (low oxygen partial pressure), hypaemic (reduced oxygen-carrying capacity, e.g. anaemia, CO), stagnant (poor circulation), histotoxic (cell unable to use oxygen, e.g. alcohol).

Time of useful consciousness at 25000 ft is about 3-5 minutes; at 35000 ft about 30-60 seconds; at 40000 ft about 15-20 seconds.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness, tingling and visual disturbance; treatment is to slow the breathing rate or breathe into a bag; hypoxia is treated with 100% oxygen and descent.

Spatial disorientation: somatogravic illusion during acceleration feels like a climb; the leans occur after an unperceived roll; rely on instruments, not sensations.

Night vision uses rods, which are poor at detail and colour and need 20-30 minutes of dark adaptation; look slightly off-centre (off-centre viewing) to see dim objects.

Carbon monoxide is colourless and odourless, binds haemoglobin about 200-250 times more readily than oxygen; suspect it with headache, confusion and a smell of exhaust; treat with 100% oxygen and land.

Cabin decompression: within seconds, don oxygen mask, establish communication, initiate emergency descent to 10000 ft or MSA, and check for structural damage.

Fatigue and circadian rhythm: the lowest point of the circadian cycle is around 0300-0500 local; sleep debt cannot be repaid by stimulants such as caffeine.

Alcohol: even small amounts reduce judgement and reaction time; effects persist after the blood level falls, and dehydration worsens the effect.

ISA: sea level temperature 15 C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 C per 1000 ft up to 36000 ft (tropopause).

QNH is the pressure reduced to sea level; QFE is the pressure at the airfield; QNE is 1013.25 hPa used above the transition level.

Cloud types by stability: cumulus and cumulonimbus indicate instability; stratus and nimbostratus indicate stability; towering cumulus warns of icing and turbulence.

Icing: clear (glaze) ice forms in large supercooled drops at 0 to -10 C; rime ice forms in small drops at -10 to -20 C; mixed ice is a combination; carburettor ice can form at temperatures between about -7 C and +20 C with high humidity.

Fog types: radiation fog forms on clear calm nights over land; advection fog forms when warm moist air moves over a cold surface; upslope fog forms when air is forced up a slope.

Wind: veering means clockwise change (e.g. 270 to 300); backing means anticlockwise. In the northern hemisphere, wind veers with height due to the Coriolis force.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus (updraughts), mature (updraughts and downdraughts, rain, lightning, hail, gust front), dissipating (downdraughts dominate).

Altimeter: flying from high pressure to low pressure without resetting the subscale causes the aircraft to fly lower than indicated; from low to high, higher than indicated.

Microburst and wind shear: expect a sudden headwind then downdraught then tailwind on approach; go around if a large airspeed change or sink rate occurs.

Great circle: shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface; rhumb line: constant track (constant bearing) crossing all meridians at the same angle.

Earth's circumference is about 21600 NM; one minute of latitude equals one nautical mile; longitude spacing decreases with latitude (cos lat).

Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north; deviation is the error caused by the aircraft's own magnetic fields; compass heading = true heading + variation + deviation.

1 in 60 rule: a track error of 1 NM over 60 NM is 1 degree; lateral offset = distance flown x track error / 60.

GS = distance / time; time = distance / GS; fuel burn = fuel flow x time; endurance = usable fuel / fuel flow.

Wind triangle: heading and TAS give the air vector; track and groundspeed give the ground vector; the wind vector closes the triangle.

Aircraft magnetism: northerly turning error is greatest on north and south headings; acceleration error is greatest on east and west headings.

Position lines: a VOR radial, an NDB bearing and a DME range can be combined to fix position; two lines give a fix, three give a check.

Emergency: Aviate, Navigate, Communicate - maintain aircraft control first, then set navigation, then transmit MAYDAY on 121.5 MHz.

MAYDAY is the distress call (grave and imminent danger); PAN-PAN is the urgency call (serious but no immediate danger).

Fire in flight: shut off fuel and electrics to the affected engine, use the extinguisher, and plan the nearest suitable landing; do not restart a fire-damaged engine.

Engine failure after takeoff: maintain best glide speed, land ahead or within 30 degrees of the runway heading; do not attempt a turn back below 500 ft AGL.

Pre-takeoff checks: flight controls free and correct, instruments set (QNH, heading, altimeter), fuel quantity and selector, trim set, doors and harnesses secure, transponder on, lights as required.

Rejected takeoff: close throttles, apply brakes, maintain directional control, select idle and monitor engine; evacuate if fire is suspected.

Emergency descent: oxygen mask on, transponder 7700, broadcast MAYDAY, descend at Vmo/Mmo or the published emergency speed, level off at 10000 ft or MSA.

Ditching: land into wind with minimum forward speed, parallel to the swell, doors open before impact, and use the life jacket outside the cabin.

Runway incursion prevention: read back all hold-short and runway-crossing clearances, and never cross a runway without an explicit clearance.

Lift L = 1/2 rho V^2 S CL; induced drag Di = 1/2 rho V^2 S CDi; total drag = parasite drag + induced drag.

Induced drag decreases with speed and increases with angle of attack; parasite drag increases with the square of speed; the L/D maximum occurs where parasite and induced drag are equal.

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack (about 15-18 degrees for most aerofoils), independent of speed, weight and bank; the stall speed rises with weight (Vs x sqrt(W2/W1)).

Load factor in a level turn n = 1/cos(bank); at 60 degrees bank n = 2, and the stall speed increases by sqrt(2) = 1.41.

Stability: longitudinal stability needs the CG forward of the neutral point; the horizontal tail produces a downward force in normal flight.

Adverse yaw: aileron drag causes the aircraft to yaw away from the turn; coordinated with rudder into the turn.

Wing tip vortices are strongest when the aircraft is heavy, slow and clean; avoid the flight path of preceding aircraft and stay above their flight path.

Mach number = TAS / local speed of sound; the critical Mach number is reached when airflow over the wing first reaches Mach 1; shock stall follows.

Flap extension increases lift and drag and lowers the stall speed; full flap increases the approach descent angle and raises the go-around stall margin risk.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Read back: runway in use, hold-short, takeoff and landing clearances, altimeter settings, headings and altitudes, SSR codes and frequency changes must be read back.

Distress call: MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY, station addressed, callsign, nature of distress, intention, position, altitude, fuel and persons on board.

Urgency call: PAN-PAN PAN-PAN PAN-PAN, followed by the same information; used for a serious situation that does not require immediate assistance.

Radio failure in VMC: continue VFR, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome and report arrival; in IMC follow the published lost-communication procedure, squawk 7600.

Position report elements: callsign, position and time, altitude or flight level, next position and ETA, and the following position.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz; VHF distress and SAR frequency; guard 243.0 MHz for military.

Standard phraseology: 'wilco' means I will comply; 'roger' means received; 'affirm' = yes; 'negative' = no; 'standby' means wait, I will call you.

VOR: 108.0-117.95 MHz, line-of-sight, gives magnetic bearing from the station (radial); the CDI shows the selected radial and TO/FROM indication.

NDB/ADF: 190-1750 kHz, ground wave and sky wave, gives relative bearing; the ADF needle points to the station; errors include night effect, coastal refraction and thunderstorm static.

DME: UHF 960-1215 MHz, slant range in NM; ground speed and time to station are derived; accuracy is best directly overhead.

ILS: localiser 108.10-111.95 MHz (odd tenths) gives lateral guidance; glide path 329.15-335.0 MHz gives vertical guidance; markers at 4-7 NM (outer), 3500 ft (middle), 1000-1500 ft (inner).

GPS: 24-satellite constellation in six orbital planes; position from ranging signals; RAIM monitors integrity; an IFR-approved receiver requires RAIM prediction before flight.

Transponder: Mode A gives identity, Mode C adds pressure altitude; Mode S adds aircraft address; squawk 2000 when entering or leaving controlled airspace unless otherwise instructed.

Radar: primary radar uses reflected pulses; secondary radar (SSR) uses transponder replies; the controller's display shows a target and label.

RNAV/GNSS approaches use waypoints and vertical guidance (LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, LPV); the LPV minimum is comparable to an ILS Category I.

Aerodrome control clearances: a takeoff clearance is issued by the tower; a landing clearance may be issued with a conditional instruction such as 'after the landing aircraft'.

Separation: radar separation minimum is normally 5 NM between IFR aircraft, and 3 NM within terminal areas where approved; wake turbulence separation depends on the weight categories.

Flight plan: file at least 30 minutes before departure for IFR, and 30 minutes for VFR unless ATS requires otherwise; cancel VFR flight plan on arrival.

Altimeter setting: use QNH below the transition altitude; above the transition level use standard 1013.25 hPa (QNE); the transition layer lies between them.

Aircraft categories: light (up to 7000 kg), medium (7000-136000 kg), heavy (above 136000 kg); the A380 is super.

Emergency phases: uncertainty (INCERFA), alert (ALERFA), distress (DETRESFA); declared by the ATS unit when communication or position is in doubt.

Licence and medical: a CPL requires a valid Class 1 medical; the medical validity decreases with age; the licence must be carried on board or available electronically.

Aircraft lights: navigation lights (red left, green right, white aft), anti-collision strobes, and landing lights; use them between sunset and sunrise and in low visibility.

Vision: the fovea handles detail and colour in daylight; the periphery handles motion and dim light; the blind spot is where the optic nerve leaves the retina.

Hearing: the ear is most sensitive to 2000-5000 Hz; noise-induced hearing loss is cumulative; use headsets with noise reduction.

Stress: moderate stress improves performance; excessive stress causes narrowing of attention and errors; use breathing and prioritisation to manage it.

Decision making: use the DECIDE model (Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify, Do, Evaluate) or FORDEC for structured decisions.

Crew resource management: brief before flight, assign roles, speak up with a clear statement of concern, and monitor the flight path.

Illusions: black hole approach makes the aircraft appear high, so the pilot flies a lower approach; the runway width illusion makes a narrow runway look farther away.

Decompression sickness: nitrogen bubbles form after diving; allow at least 24 hours between diving and flying to 8000 ft, and 48 hours after a decompression dive.

Hypoglycaemia and dehydration reduce performance; maintain hydration and regular meals, and avoid self-medication before flight.