ANAC Private Pilot Airplane (PPA) (ANAC) cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) sets the general right-of-way order: power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft give way to airships, gliders and balloons; gliders give way to airships and balloons; airships give way to balloons.

When two aircraft of the same category converge head-on, each alters heading to the right; when converging at roughly the same level, the aircraft with the other on its right gives way.

Overtaking: the aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way; the overtaking aircraft, whether climbing, descending or level, keeps clear by altering heading to the right.

Landing priority: an aircraft on final approach or on the landing area has right-of-way over aircraft on the ground; a lower aircraft on final approach has priority, but that lower aircraft may not cut in front of or overtake a higher aircraft on final.

VMC minima (ICAO, airspace classes B–E at and above 3050 m AMSL): 8 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m vertical distance from cloud; below 3050 m: 5 km, 1500 m and 300 m.

Semi-circular (hemispheric) cruising levels above 900 m AMSL on magnetic tracks: 000–179 use odd thousands (FL 090, 110...); 180–359 use even thousands (FL 100, 120...).

Aircraft must carry documents: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, journey log, and (for international flight) the aircraft radio station licence and operations manual as applicable.

An ATC clearance is an authorization; it does not relieve the pilot-in-command of responsibility for terrain clearance, wake turbulence separation, or compliance with the rules of the air.

Position reporting and readback: read back route clearances, runway-in-use, hold-short instructions, altimeter settings and any clearance containing a level instruction; a clearance readback error is corrected before the aircraft moves or climbs.

Four-stroke cycle order: intake, compression, power (combustion), exhaust; the crankshaft makes two revolutions per complete cycle, so a four-cylinder engine fires twice per revolution.

Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for gasoline is about 15:1 by mass; mixture is leaned as altitude increases because air density falls while fuel flow stays constant unless adjusted.

Detonation is uncontrolled explosive combustion causing high cylinder pressures and temperatures; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark. Detonation is countered by richer mixture, lower power, cooler CHT and higher octane fuel.

Magneto: a self-contained engine-driven ignition source; the engine runs on the magneto, not the battery. A magneto check drops RPM within limits and confirms both magnetos and the ignition switch grounding.

Oil serves lubrication, cooling, cleaning and sealing; normal oil pressure and temperature ranges are published in the POH. Low pressure or high temperature requires reducing power and landing as soon as practicable.

Carburettor ice forms at ambient temperatures between roughly -10 °C and +20 °C with high relative humidity; it is most likely at low power (closed or partly closed throttle) and is indicated by RPM loss, which carburettor heat may initially worsen as ice melts.

Electrical system: the battery supplies power for starting and emergency use; the alternator/generator supplies the bus in flight. An alternator failure is shown by a zero or negative ammeter/loadmeter reading and a falling bus voltage.

Load factor n = L/W; in a level turn n = 1/cos(bank angle), so 60° bank gives n = 2 and the stall speed rises by √2 (about 41%).

Static and pitot systems: the altimeter, airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator use static pressure; the airspeed indicator additionally uses pitot (ram) pressure. A blocked pitot with open drain acts like an altimeter; a blocked static source makes the ASI over-read in climb and under-read in descent.

Weight and balance: moment = weight × arm; CG position = total moment ÷ total weight. Adding weight aft of the datum moves the CG aft, and the shift is proportional to the added moment divided by the new total weight.

Maximum take-off and landing masses are structural limits; performance limits (runway length, climb gradient, obstacle clearance) may be more restrictive and must be checked separately.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature at that level); high density altitude increases take-off and landing distances and reduces climb rate.

Take-off and landing distances vary approximately with the square of the speed and inversely with acceleration; a 10% increase in take-off speed increases the ground run by about 21%.

Headwind and tailwind components: headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle between wind and runway); a tailwind increases ground run and reduces climb gradient, and most POH data prohibit tailwind take-off beyond a stated limit.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency + alternate + final reserve; final reserve for VFR is typically 30 minutes (45 minutes for IFR in many states), and the calculation must use the planned power setting and altitude.

Climb performance: rate of climb = excess power ÷ weight; service ceiling is where maximum rate of climb falls to 100 ft/min (or as defined by the authority).

For a light single-engine aeroplane, the glide ratio is roughly constant with speed only near best glide speed; best glide speed gives maximum range, and minimum sink speed (slightly lower) gives maximum time aloft.

Load sheet check: verify zero-fuel mass, take-off mass, landing mass and CG envelope; a CG forward of the limit increases stick forces and landing distance, an aft CG reduces stability and can make the aircraft uncontrollable.

Hypoxia: at 5500 m (18 000 ft) the barometric pressure is about half sea level; at 7600 m (25 000 ft) it is about one quarter. Time of useful consciousness falls from minutes to seconds as altitude increases without supplemental oxygen.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling and visual disturbance; treatment is to slow the breathing rate or breathe into a bag. Hypoxia and hyperventilation are easily confused, so the safe response is to assume hypoxia and descend.

Spatial disorientation: the vestibular system cannot detect a coordinated, slow roll or a prolonged constant turn. The reliable response is to cross-check instruments, not to trust sensations.

The lean body mass of a pilot is affected by dehydration: a 2% loss of body water degrades cognitive and psychomotor performance; caffeine and alcohol both worsen dehydration and sleep quality.

Alcohol: most authorities require at least 8 hours between bottle and throttle and a blood alcohol level below 0.04% (or lower per state); even low levels reduce night vision and reaction time.

Fatigue: circadian low points are roughly 02:00–06:00 and 14:00–16:00 local time; duty and rest limits exist to protect against cumulative fatigue, and fatigue is a major cause of VFR into IMC accidents.

Vision: the fovea provides colour and detail but needs light; at night use off-centre viewing (about 10–15° from the object) to use the more sensitive rod cells.

Stress and decision-making: the DECIDE model (Detect, Estimate, Choose, Identify, Do, Evaluate) is a structured framework for in-flight decisions; the hazardous attitudes include anti-authority, impulsivity, invulnerability, macho and resignation.

Standard atmosphere at sea level: 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, temperature lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1000 ft (about 2 °C per 1000 ft) up to the tropopause.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude with 1013.25 hPa set; true altitude = indicated altitude corrected for temperature and pressure errors. Cold air makes the altimeter over-read and the true altitude lower than indicated.

QNH is the pressure reduced to sea level; QFE gives height above the aerodrome reference point; QNE (1013.25 hPa) gives flight levels.

Cloud base estimate: cloud base (ft) ≈ (temperature − dew point) × 400 for temperatures in °C, or (spread in °C) × 125 in metres.

Stability: unstable air gives cumuliform cloud, showers and good visibility between showers; stable air gives stratiform cloud, steady precipitation and haze.

Wind: surface friction reduces wind speed and backs the wind (turns it anticlockwise) compared with the geostrophic wind; the wind veers with height in the northern hemisphere.

Icing: structural icing is most likely in freezing rain or in cloud at temperatures between 0 °C and −20 °C; clear ice forms in large supercooled drops, rime ice in small drops.

Thunderstorms require three ingredients: moisture, an unstable lapse rate and a lifting trigger. Avoid cells by at least 20 nm (more for severe cells) and never fly under a cumulonimbus anvil.

Fog: radiation fog forms on clear, calm nights with a small temperature-dew point spread and usually dissipates after sunrise; advection fog forms when warm moist air moves over a cold surface and can persist in wind.

The 1-in-60 rule: a 1° error in heading gives about 1 nm of track error per 60 nm flown. Track error (°) = (distance off track ÷ distance flown) × 60.

Magnetic variation east is subtracted from true to give magnetic (True Virgins Make Dull Company: True + Variation = Magnetic, then + Deviation = Compass).

A VOR radial is the magnetic bearing from the station; the CDI needle centres when the selected OBS matches the aircraft's bearing from the station, and TO/FROM indicates the direction to the station.

DME gives slant range in nautical miles; the indicated distance exceeds the ground distance by an amount that grows with altitude and is significant when directly overhead.

GPS: RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) checks satellite signal integrity; a loss of RAIM means the position cannot be trusted for the intended operation and a conventional backup is required.

Altimeter: setting QNH gives altitude above mean sea level; setting the aerodrome elevation on the subscale on the ground gives an indication of zero at the aerodrome reference point.

Airspeed: indicated airspeed (IAS) is what the ASI shows; calibrated airspeed (CAS) corrects for position and instrument error; true airspeed (TAS) increases about 2% per 1000 ft for a given IAS.

Transponder: code 7700 is an emergency, 7600 is radio failure and 7500 is unlawful interference; Mode C reports pressure altitude.

Compass errors: magnetic dip causes turning and acceleration errors; in the northern hemisphere, a turn through north shows an apparent turn toward the north (undershoot) and through south an apparent overshoot.

Pre-flight: check fuel quantity and quality (drain sumps for water and sediment), control freedom and correct movement, tyre and brake condition, oil level, and that documents and mass and balance are within limits.

Run-up checks confirm magneto drop, carburettor heat function, idle smoothness, oil pressure and suction; any limit exceedance grounds the flight until rectified.

V-speeds: Vr (rotation), Vx (best angle of climb, obstacle clearance), Vy (best rate of climb), Vfe (maximum flap extended), Vno (maximum structural cruising) and Vne (never exceed).

Engine failure after take-off: establish best glide, select a landing area within gliding range, then attempt restart (fuel, mixture, carburettor heat, mags, primer); do not turn back below a safe altitude.

Emergency descent: reduce power, extend flaps/speedbrakes as available, descend at the recommended speed; use 7700 and transmit MAYDAY with position, altitude, nature of emergency and intentions.

Lost procedures: climb for radio and navigation reception, use the 5 C's (Circle, Climb, Conserve, Communicate, Comply), and if uncertain, request assistance rather than pressing on into worsening weather.

Smoke or fire in flight: use the appropriate extinguisher, close vents, reduce electrical load, land as soon as practicable; electrical fire requires isolating the affected circuit.

Landing: check wind, runway length and surface, use the correct approach speed (typically 1.3 × stall speed in the landing configuration) and go around if not stabilized by a defined point.

Lift L = ½ ρ V² S CL; induced drag Di = ½ ρ V² S CDi, and CDi = CL²/(π A e), so induced drag falls as speed rises and parasite drag rises with V².

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack, not at a fixed speed; the stall speed increases with weight, load factor and forward CG, and decreases with flaps.

In a level turn, load factor n = 1/cos φ and stall speed increases by √n: at 60° bank, stall speed rises about 41%; at 75°, about 100%.

The four forces in a steady climb: thrust acts forward along the flight path, weight has a component backward; rate of climb depends on excess power, not excess thrust alone.

Longitudinal stability requires the CG forward of the neutral point; the horizontal tail produces a downforce in most conventional layouts, which increases as the CG moves forward.

Adverse yaw: the descending aileron produces more induced drag on the rising wing, yawing the aircraft away from the turn; coordinated rudder is applied into the turn.

Flaps increase CLmax and drag; they lower the stall speed but increase the approach angle and reduce go-around performance when fully extended.

Mach effects: the critical Mach number is the free-stream Mach at which airflow somewhere on the aircraft first reaches Mach 1; shock waves and buffet follow above it.

Ground effect reduces induced drag and downwash within about one wingspan of the surface; the aircraft may float on landing or lift off early at a speed below that needed to climb out of ground effect.

Distress call: MAYDAY (spoken three times) followed by callsign, nature of distress, position, altitude, heading, speed, intentions and persons on board.

Urgency call: PAN-PAN (three times) for an urgent situation that does not yet threaten immediate loss of life; do not use MAYDAY for a non-distress situation.

Standard readback items: ATC route clearances, runway-in-use, hold-short instructions, altimeter settings and any clearance containing a level, heading or frequency instruction.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Numbers are transmitted digit by digit, with the decimal point spoken as DECIMAL; frequencies are given as separate digits (e.g. one one eight decimal three zero five).

Radio failure in VMC: continue under VFR, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome and report arrival; in IMC follow the published lost-communication procedure and squawk 7600.

Transponder codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference; Mode C altitude is reported when instructed or as required by airspace.

Position report format: callsign, position and time, altitude/level, next position and ETA, and any other relevant information; keep transmissions brief and use standard phraseology.

Solo requirements: the student must hold a valid medical certificate, have the instructor's endorsement for the specific aircraft and route, and fly only in the conditions authorized by that endorsement.

Pre-solo written and practical checks cover airspace rules, weather minima, aircraft performance, emergency procedures and the local area; the endorsement is aircraft- and route-specific.

The first solo is normally limited to circuits at the training aerodrome in day VMC with a defined maximum wind and crosswind component set by the instructor.

Dual-to-solo consolidation: practice stalls, steep turns, slow flight, forced landings and go-arounds at altitude before solo, and review the POH speeds and limitations before every flight.

Logbook: dual, solo and pilot-in-command time are recorded separately; the instructor signs each dual entry and endorses solo flights, and totals must be legible and accurate.

Currency and recency: most authorities require recent experience (e.g. three take-offs and landings in the preceding 90 days) before carrying passengers; the exact rule is set by the state.

Airmanship: use checklists, maintain a sterile cockpit during critical phases, apply the IMSAFE checklist (Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, Emotion) before flight, and never let external pressure override a no-go decision.

Scenario training: practice engine failure after take-off, forced landing, precautionary landing, diversion and lost procedures with the instructor before solo consolidation, and debrief each flight against defined criteria.