ЦТ Biology study guide
ЦТ Biology · Work through your exam, one topic at a time.
The ЦТ по биологии (Centralized Testing in Biology, often called CT Biology) is a standardized multiple-choice entrance examination used in Belarus for admission to university programmes in medicine, biology, agronomy, ecology, veterinary science, pharmacy and related fields. It is intended for secondary-school graduates and other applicants who need a comparable, centrally scored biology result for competitive admission. The ЦТ Biology study guide has 10 sections and about 2,868 words.
01Biology as a Science: Methods, Levels of Organization
Biology is a system of sciences distinguished by object of study (viruses, prokaryotes, eukaryotes) and by method. Know the classic methods and what each can prove: observation (descriptive, records phenomena without interference), comparison (reveals common and divergent features, the basis of systematics and anatomy), experiment (a controlled test with experimental and control groups, one variable changed), modelling (substitutes an object with a simplified analogue, e.g.
335 words, about 2 min02Cytology: Chemical Composition and Cell Structure
Cells contain inorganic substances (water, mineral ions) and organic ones: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, ATP, vitamins. Water is the solvent and participant in hydrolysis; ions buffer and stabilize structures.
320 words, about 2 min03Metabolism: Photosynthesis, Chemosynthesis, Energy and Biosynthesis
Metabolism is two linked streams: catabolism (energy metabolism, breakdown) and anabolism (biosynthesis, building). Energy metabolism begins with glycolysis in the cytoplasm (glucose to pyruvate, small ATP yield), continues with pyruvate oxidation and the Krebs cycle in mitochondria, and ends with the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, which yields most ATP.
306 words, about 2 min04Reproduction and Individual Development
Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid cells; its phases are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase. Key events: chromosomes condense, the spindle forms, chromosomes align at the equator, sister chromatids separate to opposite poles, nuclei reform.
265 words, about 1 min05Genetics and Selection
Mendel's laws: uniformity of first-generation hybrids (dominance), segregation of alleles in the second generation (3:1 phenotype, 1:2:1 genotype for a monohybrid cross), independent assortment for unlinked genes (9:3:3:1 dihybrid), and the purity of gametes - each gamete carries one allele of a pair. Use a Punnett square or probability multiplication.
265 words, about 1 min06Molecular Biology, Gene Expression and Biotechnology
DNA is a double helix of nucleotides (deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base) with complementary pairing A–T and G–C via hydrogen bonds; the backbone is joined by covalent phosphodiester bonds. RNA is single-stranded, contains ribose and uracil, and comes in messenger, transfer and ribosomal forms.
294 words, about 1 min07Botany: Bacteria, Fungi, Lichens, Algae, Higher Plants
Bacteria are prokaryotes: no nucleus, circular DNA, cell wall, often heterotrophic, some autotrophic by chemosynthesis or photosynthesis; they reproduce by binary fission and play roles as decomposers, nitrogen fixers, pathogens. Fungi are eukaryotic heterotrophs with chitin walls, absorbing nutrients; they reproduce by spores, and include molds, yeasts (unicellular) and cap fungi.
288 words, about 1 min08Zoology: Invertebrates and Vertebrates
Invertebrates include sponges, coelenterates (radial symmetry, two layers, gastrovascular cavity), flatworms (bilaterally symmetrical, no body cavity), roundworms (pseudocoel, cuticle), annelids (segmented, coelom, closed circulation), molluscs (mantle, shell, radula), arthropods (jointed appendages, chitin exoskeleton, molting; insects with three body regions and tracheal respiration), and echinoderms (five-part radial symmetry, water-vascular system). Vertebrates share a vertebral column, internal skeleton, and closed circulation.
237 words, about 1 min09Human Anatomy and Physiology, Homeostasis and Hygiene
Organ systems: skeletal (support, protection, mineral store, blood cell formation in marrow), muscular (movement, heat), digestive (mechanical and chemical breakdown, absorption in the small intestine, water reabsorption in the large intestine), respiratory (gas exchange in alveoli), circulatory (heart, vessels, blood; systemic and pulmonary circuits), excretory (nephrons filter, reabsorb, secrete; urine formation), nervous (central and peripheral, reflex arc), endocrine (hormones, feedback), immune and reproductive . Homeostasis keeps internal conditions stable through negative feedback: a deviation triggers a response that reverses it.
276 words, about 1 min10General Biology: Evolution, Ecology, Biogeocenology, Biosphere
Evolution: Lamarck explained change by use and inheritance of acquired traits; Darwin proposed natural selection acting on heritable variation. Modern synthesis adds populations, mutations, genetic drift, isolation and gene flow.
282 words, about 1 min