ЦТ English Language cheat sheet

Main idea = topic + author's point about it; it must cover the whole passage, not one paragraph.

Detail questions: locate the keyword in the text, then read the sentence before and after it for context.

Inference answers must be supported by the text; an option that is true in real life but unstated is wrong.

Vocabulary-in-context: substitute each option into the sentence and keep the one that preserves the passage's meaning.

Tone words: positive (approving, optimistic), neutral (informative, objective), negative (critical, skeptical, ironic).

Reference questions (it, this, they): the antecedent usually sits in the same or the immediately preceding sentence and agrees in number.

"EXCEPT / NOT" questions: three options are confirmed by the text; the answer is the one with no textual support.

Order of events: scan for time markers (first, then, by 1990, after that) rather than paragraph position.

Purpose questions ask why the author wrote the text (to persuade, to describe, to warn), not what it says.

Present perfect (have/has + V3) links past to now; use it with for, since, already, yet, ever, never, just.

Past simple pairs with finished time markers: yesterday, last week, in 1995, two days ago.

Conditionals: 1st if + present, will + V; 2nd if + past simple, would + V; 3rd if + past perfect, would have + V3.

Reported speech shifts tense back one step and adjusts pronouns and time words (now → then, tomorrow → the next day).

Passive = be + past participle; the object of the active sentence becomes the subject.

After prepositions and after verbs like enjoy, avoid, suggest, look forward to, use the -ing form, not the infinitive.

Relative clauses: who for people, which for things, whose for possession, where for places; omit the relative pronoun only when it is not the subject.

Subject-verb agreement: each, every, everyone, nobody are singular; the verb agrees with the head noun, not with a phrase after it.

Comparatives: -er/more for two items, the -est/most for three or more; as ... as for equality, not ... as for inequality.

Articles: a/an for first mention or one of many; the for unique or already-known referents; no article for general plurals.

Collocation pairs are fixed: make a decision, do homework, take part in, pay attention to, keep a promise.

Distinguish look (at), watch (moving things), see (perceive); listen to vs hear; say + words vs tell + person.

Phrasal verbs change meaning with the particle: give up (quit), give in (surrender), give out (distribute), give away (donate).

Affixes signal meaning and part of speech: un-/dis-/in- (not), re- (again), -ful/-less (adjective), -tion/-ment (noun), -ize (verb).

False friends and near-synonyms differ in register and collocation; choose the word that fits the grammatical slot and the context.

Countable nouns take many/few and a plural; uncountable (information, advice, news, furniture) take much/little and no plural -s.

Word-formation tasks: decide the needed part of speech from the sentence slot first, then apply the correct suffix.

Gradable vs extreme adjectives: very good but absolutely excellent; quite/ rather modify gradable ones.

Politeness ladder: Could you ...? / Would you mind + -ing? > Can you ...? > imperative; the reply to "Would you mind?" is "Not at all."

Offers and suggestions: Shall I/we ...? What about + -ing? Why don't we ...? Let's ...; accept with "That sounds great."

Apologies: Sorry for + -ing / I apologize for + noun; respond with "That's all right / No problem."

Requests for repetition: "Could you say that again?", "I beg your pardon?" - not "Repeat, please."

Functional exponents: asking the way (Excuse me, how do I get to ...?), shopping (I'd like ..., I'm just looking), telephoning (Could I speak to ...?).

Formal vs informal openings: Dear Sir or Madam / Yours faithfully; Dear Mr Smith / Yours sincerely; Hi Tom / Best wishes.

Small talk follows safe topics (weather, travel, hobbies); avoid age, salary, religion and politics with strangers.

Agreeing and disagreeing: "So do I / Neither do I" for short agreement; "I see your point, but ..." for polite disagreement.

Doubling rule: double the final consonant before -ing/-ed when the word ends in one vowel + one consonant and the stress falls on the last syllable (stop → stopped, but visit → visited).

Drop final -e before a vowel suffix (make → making, hope → hoping); keep it before a consonant suffix (hope → hopeful).

Change -y to -i after a consonant (carry → carried, happy → happiness) but keep -y after a vowel (play → played).

Comma rules: separate items in a list, set off introductory phrases and non-defining relative clauses, join clauses with a conjunction.

Apostrophes: -'s for possession (the boy's book) and for contractions (it's = it is); its is possessive; plural possessives take -s'.

No comma splice: two independent clauses need a full stop, a semicolon, or a comma plus and/but/or.

Paragraph structure: topic sentence, supporting details, concluding sentence; one central idea per paragraph.

Linking words signal the relationship: however (contrast), therefore (result), in addition (adding), for example (illustration).

Capitalize proper nouns, nationalities, days, months, languages, and the first word of a sentence or quotation.

Main idea = topic + author's point about it; it must cover the whole passage, not one paragraph.

Detail questions: locate the keyword in the text, then read the sentence before and after it for context.

Inference answers must be supported by the text; an option that is true in real life but unstated is wrong.

Vocabulary-in-context: substitute each option into the sentence and keep the one that preserves the passage's meaning.

Tone words: positive (approving, optimistic), neutral (informative, objective), negative (critical, skeptical, ironic).

Reference questions (it, this, they): the antecedent usually sits in the same or the immediately preceding sentence and agrees in number.

"EXCEPT / NOT" questions: three options are confirmed by the text; the answer is the one with no textual support.

Order of events: scan for time markers (first, then, by 1990, after that) rather than paragraph position.

Purpose questions ask why the author wrote the text (to persuade, to describe, to warn), not what it says.

Present perfect (have/has + V3) links past to now; use it with for, since, already, yet, ever, never, just.

Past simple pairs with finished time markers: yesterday, last week, in 1995, two days ago.

Conditionals: 1st if + present, will + V; 2nd if + past simple, would + V; 3rd if + past perfect, would have + V3.

Reported speech shifts tense back one step and adjusts pronouns and time words (now → then, tomorrow → the next day).

Passive = be + past participle; the object of the active sentence becomes the subject.

After prepositions and after verbs like enjoy, avoid, suggest, look forward to, use the -ing form, not the infinitive.

Relative clauses: who for people, which for things, whose for possession, where for places; omit the relative pronoun only when it is not the subject.

Subject-verb agreement: each, every, everyone, nobody are singular; the verb agrees with the head noun, not with a phrase after it.

Comparatives: -er/more for two items, the -est/most for three or more; as ... as for equality, not ... as for inequality.

Articles: a/an for first mention or one of many; the for unique or already-known referents; no article for general plurals.

Collocation pairs are fixed: make a decision, do homework, take part in, pay attention to, keep a promise.

Distinguish look (at), watch (moving things), see (perceive); listen to vs hear; say + words vs tell + person.

Phrasal verbs change meaning with the particle: give up (quit), give in (surrender), give out (distribute), give away (donate).

Affixes signal meaning and part of speech: un-/dis-/in- (not), re- (again), -ful/-less (adjective), -tion/-ment (noun), -ize (verb).

False friends and near-synonyms differ in register and collocation; choose the word that fits the grammatical slot and the context.

Countable nouns take many/few and a plural; uncountable (information, advice, news, furniture) take much/little and no plural -s.

Word-formation tasks: decide the needed part of speech from the sentence slot first, then apply the correct suffix.

Gradable vs extreme adjectives: very good but absolutely excellent; quite/rather modify gradable ones.

Politeness ladder: Could you ...? / Would you mind + -ing? > Can you ...? > imperative; the reply to "Would you mind?" is "Not at all."

Offers and suggestions: Shall I/we ...? What about + -ing? Why don't we ...? Let's ...; accept with "That sounds great."

Apologies: Sorry for + -ing / I apologize for + noun; respond with "That's all right / No problem."

Requests for repetition: "Could you say that again?", "I beg your pardon?" - not "Repeat, please."

Functional exponents: asking the way (Excuse me, how do I get to ...?), shopping (I'd like ..., I'm just looking), telephoning (Could I speak to ...?).

Formal vs informal openings: Dear Sir or Madam / Yours faithfully; Dear Mr Smith / Yours sincerely; Hi Tom / Best wishes.

Small talk follows safe topics (weather, travel, hobbies); avoid age, salary, religion and politics with strangers.

Agreeing and disagreeing: "So do I / Neither do I" for short agreement; "I see your point, but ..." for polite disagreement.

Doubling rule: double the final consonant before -ing/-ed when the word ends in one vowel + one consonant and the stress falls on the last syllable (stop → stopped, but visit → visited).

Drop final -e before a vowel suffix (make → making, hope → hoping); keep it before a consonant suffix (hope → hopeful).

Change -y to -i after a consonant (carry → carried, happy → happiness) but keep -y after a vowel (play → played).

Comma rules: separate items in a list, set off introductory phrases and non-defining relative clauses, join clauses with a conjunction.

Apostrophes: -'s for possession (the boy's book) and for contractions (it's = it is); its is possessive; plural possessives take -s'.

No comma splice: two independent clauses need a full stop, a semicolon, or a comma plus and/but/or.

Paragraph structure: topic sentence, supporting details, concluding sentence; one central idea per paragraph.

Linking words signal the relationship: however (contrast), therefore (result), in addition (adding), for example (illustration).

Capitalize proper nouns, nationalities, days, months, languages, and the first word of a sentence or quotation.