ЦТ English Language key terms

The central point that a whole text is built around. It is broader than any single detail and can usually be stated in one sentence that covers everything the author wrote.

A specific fact, example, reason, or description that backs up or explains a larger point in a text. Details answer questions such as who, when, how many, or for what reason.

A conclusion a reader draws from clues in a text rather than from a statement made outright. The answer is not printed on the page but is strongly suggested by the evidence given.

A sentence, usually near the start of a paragraph, that announces what the paragraph is about. The remaining sentences normally develop or illustrate the point it introduces.

Reading quickly to grasp the general sense of a passage, for example its topic, purpose, or overall structure. You deliberately skip fine detail in order to get through the text fast.

Moving the eyes rapidly over a text looking for one specific piece of information, such as a date, a name, or a number, while ignoring everything else on the page.

The reason a writer produced a text, most often to inform, to persuade, to entertain, or to instruct. Purpose shapes the choice of facts, tone, and layout.

The attitude a writer expresses towards the subject or the reader, for example humorous, serious, critical, or sympathetic. Tone is conveyed through word choice and sentence style rather than stated directly.

Information surrounding an unfamiliar word that helps a reader work out its meaning. Clues may be a definition, a synonym, an example, a contrast, or the general sense of the sentence.

A pronoun or similar word, such as it, they, this, or the former, that points back or forward to something already named in the text. Tracking what it refers to is essential for accurate comprehension.

A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea, such as teacher, city, table, or freedom. Nouns can be countable or uncountable and may be singular or plural.

A noun that has a singular and a plural form and can be used with numbers, such as one book, two books. It takes a or an in the singular when indefinite.

A noun naming something treated as a mass rather than as separate items, such as water, advice, or information. It has no plural form in this sense and does not take a or an.

The determiner a, an, or the placed before a noun. The indefinite forms a and an introduce one non-specific item; the definite form the signals something already known or unique.

A word or phrase expressing amount, such as some, any, much, many, a few, a little, or a lot of. The correct choice depends on whether the noun is countable or uncountable.

A verb form made with have or has plus the past participle, used for past actions still relevant now or for experience up to the present. It often pairs with since, for, already, yet, and ever.

The verb form used for completed actions at a definite time in the past, such as walked or saw. It normally appears with time markers like yesterday, last year, or in 2010.

A verb whose past simple and past participle forms are not made by adding -ed, such as go, went, gone or take, took, taken. These forms must be learned individually.

A construction in which the subject receives the action rather than performing it, formed with be plus a past participle, as in the bridge was built in 1900. The doer may be omitted or added with by.

A sentence expressing a condition and its result, usually with if. First conditional uses present tense with will; second uses past with would; third uses past perfect with would have.

A helping verb such as can, must, should, may, or might that adds meaning like ability, obligation, permission, or possibility. It is followed by the bare infinitive and takes no -s in the third person.

A clause beginning with who, which, that, whose, or where that describes a noun in the main clause, as in the man who called. It may be defining or non-defining.

A group of words containing its own subject and verb. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause must be attached to a main clause.

A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses, such as and, but, because, although, or while. Coordinating conjunctions link equals; subordinating ones attach a dependent clause.

A short word such as in, on, at, by, for, or with that shows the relation between a noun and another element, often place, time, or direction. Prepositions are followed by a noun or gerund, not a verb.

A word used in place of a noun, such as he, she, it, they, this, or someone. Pronouns must agree with the noun they replace in number and, in the third person, in gender.

The -ing form of a verb used as a noun, as in swimming is healthy or I enjoy reading. Some verbs and prepositions are followed by a gerund rather than an infinitive.

The base form of a verb, with or without to, as in to go or go. It can follow many verbs and adjectives, and the bare form follows modal verbs.

The noun or pronoun that performs the action of a verb or about which a statement is made. In English the subject determines verb agreement and is normally required in every clause.

A word with a meaning close to that of another word, such as begin and start. True synonyms are rare, and the best choice depends on register, collocation, and nuance.

A word opposite in meaning to another, such as hot and cold or generous and mean. Antonyms are often tested through prefixes that reverse meaning, like un-, dis-, or in-.

The habitual pairing of words that native speakers treat as natural, such as make a decision or heavy rain. Choosing the wrong partner, like do a decision, sounds incorrect even if the meaning is clear.

A verb combined with an adverb or preposition that together carry a new meaning, such as give up, look after, or put off. Some are separable, allowing the object between verb and particle.

The emotional or evaluative association a word carries beyond its literal meaning, as thin versus skinny. Word choice with the wrong connotation can make a sentence sound insulting or odd.

A letter group added to the front of a word to change its meaning, such as un- in unhappy or re- in rewrite. Common ones express negation, repetition, or direction.

A letter group added to the end of a word to change its meaning or word class, such as -ness in kindness or -less in careless. Suffixes often reveal whether a word is a noun, verb, or adjective.

The level of formality a situation demands, ranging from casual speech to formal writing. Choosing words that fit the register means avoiding slang in a report or stiff phrasing in a friendly note.

A way of asking for something that shows respect for the listener, typically using could, would, may, or phrases such as do you mind. Direct commands are softened to avoid sounding rude.

An expression of regret for a mistake or inconvenience, often using sorry, I apologise for, or excuse me. A full apology usually names the problem and offers to put it right.

A spoken or written offer to attend an event, commonly framed with would you like to or how about. Accepting and declining politely are standard functions tested in dialogue tasks.

Light, socially safe conversation used to fill a gap or open a relationship, often about weather, travel, or the occasion. It avoids personal or controversial topics with strangers.

Telling someone how to reach a place using landmarks and movement phrases such as turn left, go straight on, or take the second turning. Clear sequencing and reference to visible landmarks matter.

The system of marks such as full stops, commas, question marks, and apostrophes used to separate ideas and clarify structure. Correct punctuation prevents misreading and signals sentence boundaries.

A mark used to separate items in a list, mark off extra information, or follow an introductory phrase. It should not normally join two independent clauses without a conjunction.

A mark with two jobs: showing possession, as in the girl's book, and marking omitted letters in contractions, as in don't. Its misuse, such as its for it's, is a common error.

The upper-case form of a letter, required at the start of a sentence, for proper nouns such as names and countries, and for the pronoun I. Incorrect capitalisation is a frequent writing error.

A block of sentences grouped around one controlling idea, usually opened by a topic sentence and separated from the next block by an indent or space. Paragraphs organise a longer text for the reader.

The way sentences and paragraphs are linked so a text reads as a single whole, achieved through pronouns, conjunctions, and repeated or substituted vocabulary. Without it, ideas feel disconnected.

The correct arrangement of letters in a written word, including doubled consonants, silent letters, and standard endings. Errors in spelling can obscure meaning and lower the impression of accuracy.

The grammatical category a word belongs to, such as noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or preposition. Identifying the class helps decide which form of a word fits a gap in a sentence.

The name of a particular person, place, organisation, day, or month, such as Anna, Minsk, or Monday. Proper nouns are capitalised in English wherever they appear in a sentence.