SLE Test of Written Expression cheat sheet

Subject-verb agreement: a singular subject takes a singular verb (add -s in present tense); a plural subject takes a plural verb. Intervening phrases (e.g., 'along with', 'as well as') do not change the number of the subject.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number and gender. Indefinite pronouns such as 'each', 'everyone', 'nobody', and 'either' are singular and take singular pronouns and verbs.

Case of pronouns: use subject pronouns (I, he, she, they, we) for subjects and predicate nominatives; use object pronouns (me, him, her, them, us) for objects of verbs or prepositions. In comparisons using 'than' or 'as', complete the clause to determine case.

Who vs. whom: 'who' is a subject pronoun (replaces he/she/they); 'whom' is an object pronoun (replaces him/her/them). Test by substituting the pronoun or by checking whether the word functions as subject or object in its clause.

Verb tense consistency: do not shift tense without a logical reason. Use past perfect (had + past participle) for an action completed before another past action; use present perfect (has/have + past participle) for an action begun in the past and continuing to the present.

Adjective vs. adverb: adjectives modify nouns and pronouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Linking verbs (be, seem, become, feel, taste, look) take predicate adjectives, not adverbs.

Comparative and superlative forms: use -er/-est for one-syllable adjectives (and some two-syllable ones); use more/most for most adjectives of two or more syllables. Never combine both (e.g., 'more better' is incorrect).

Dangling and misplaced modifiers: a modifying phrase must clearly and logically modify a word present in the sentence, usually the subject of the main clause. Place modifiers as close as possible to the word they modify.

A complete sentence requires a subject, a predicate (verb), and a complete thought. An independent clause can stand alone; a dependent clause cannot.

Sentence fragments: a group of words missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. Test by asking whether the group can stand alone as a sentence.

Run-on sentences: two or more independent clauses joined without correct punctuation or conjunction. Two types: fused sentence (no punctuation) and comma splice (comma alone).

Four sentence structures: simple (one independent clause), compound (two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or semicolon), complex (one independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses), compound-complex (two or more independent clauses plus at least one dependent clause).

Coordination vs. subordination: use coordination (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to join equal ideas; use subordination (because, although, when, if, since) to show that one idea is less important than another.

Parallel structure: items in a series, pairs joined by correlative conjunctions (either...or, not only...but also), and elements in a list must share the same grammatical form.

Active vs. passive voice: active voice (subject performs the action) is usually clearer and more direct; passive voice (subject receives the action) is appropriate when the doer is unknown or unimportant.

Comma uses: separate items in a series, separate introductory elements from the main clause, set off nonessential (nonrestrictive) clauses and phrases, separate coordinate adjectives, and separate two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

Comma splices: joining two independent clauses with only a comma is incorrect. Fix by adding a coordinating conjunction, changing the comma to a semicolon, or making one clause dependent.

Semicolon uses: join two independent clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction; separate items in a series when the items themselves contain commas. Do not use a semicolon before a coordinating conjunction.

Colon uses: introduce a list, an explanation, or a quotation after an independent clause. The clause before the colon must be complete. Do not use a colon between a verb and its object or between a preposition and its object.

Apostrophes: use 's for singular possessive (even if the noun ends in s, e.g., James's) and for plural possessives not ending in s; use s' for plural nouns ending in s. Do not use apostrophes for simple plurals.

Quotation marks: place periods and commas inside closing quotation marks; place colons and semicolons outside. Use single quotation marks only for a quotation within a quotation.

Capitalization: capitalize proper nouns, the first word of a sentence, the first word of a direct quotation, and titles of works (capitalize major words). Do not capitalize common nouns or titles used generically.

Hyphens vs. dashes: hyphens join words in compound modifiers before a noun (e.g., well-known author); dashes (em dash) set off parenthetical or emphatic material. Do not confuse a hyphen with a dash.

Affect vs. effect: 'affect' is usually a verb meaning to influence; 'effect' is usually a noun meaning result. 'Effect' as a verb means to bring about; 'affect' as a noun is a technical term in psychology.

Their/there/they're: 'their' is possessive; 'there' indicates place or existence; 'they're' is the contraction of 'they are'.

Its/it's: 'its' is possessive; 'it's' is the contraction of 'it is' or 'it has'. The same pattern applies to 'your/you're' and 'whose/who's'.

Lie vs. lay: 'lie' (lay, lain) means to recline or rest; 'lay' (laid, laid) means to put or place something. 'Lie' is intransitive; 'lay' is transitive and requires an object.

Connotation vs. denotation: denotation is the literal dictionary meaning; connotation is the implied emotional or cultural association. Choose words whose connotation fits the tone and audience.

Avoid redundancy: do not repeat the same idea in different words (e.g., 'advance planning', 'free gift', 'past history'). Edit to remove unnecessary repetition.

Precise word choice: prefer specific, concrete words over vague or abstract ones. Avoid slang, clichés, and jargon in formal writing unless the audience expects them.

Commonly confused words: 'fewer' vs. 'less' (fewer for countable items, less for uncountable quantities); 'between' vs. 'among' (between for two, among for three or more); 'imply' vs. 'infer' (writer implies, reader infers).

Paragraph unity: every sentence in a paragraph should support the main idea expressed in the topic sentence. Remove or relocate sentences that stray from the central point.

Topic sentence: states the main idea of a paragraph, usually at or near the beginning. It should be broad enough to cover the paragraph but specific enough to guide development.

Coherence: the logical and orderly relationship of ideas. Achieve coherence through chronological order, spatial order, order of importance, or cause-and-effect order.

Transitional words and phrases: signal relationships between ideas. Examples: addition (also, furthermore), contrast (however, nevertheless), cause/effect (therefore, consequently), example (for instance), sequence (first, next, finally).

Pronoun reference and repetition: use pronouns and repeated key words to link sentences, but avoid ambiguous pronoun reference. Each pronoun must refer clearly to a single antecedent.

Essay structure: introduction (presents thesis and engages reader), body paragraphs (each develops one supporting point), conclusion (restates thesis and offers final thought). The thesis is the controlling idea of the essay.

Logical fallacies: avoid faulty reasoning such as hasty generalization, false cause (post hoc), circular reasoning, and either/or fallacy. Strong organization relies on sound evidence and valid inference.

Proofreading checklist: check subject-verb agreement, pronoun agreement, verb tense consistency, sentence completeness, punctuation, spelling, and capitalization in that order or another systematic sequence.

Read aloud or subvocalize: hearing the sentence helps identify missing words, repeated words, and awkward phrasing that the eye may skip over.

Common editing errors: missing commas after introductory phrases, comma splices, run-ons, fragments, inconsistent tense, and misspelled homophones (their/there, its/it's, to/too/two).

Revision vs. editing: revision addresses content, organization, and clarity; editing addresses grammar, punctuation, and word choice; proofreading is the final check for surface errors.

Sentence combining and splitting: combine short, choppy sentences to improve flow, and split overly long sentences to improve clarity. Vary sentence length and structure for readability.

Parallelism check: when editing a series or a list, verify that all items match in grammatical form. Mismatched items (e.g., noun + verb phrase) should be revised for consistency.

Wordiness and conciseness: eliminate unnecessary words, redundancy, and empty phrases (e.g., 'due to the fact that' → 'because'). Concise writing is clearer and more forceful.